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Textbook on military topography. Study guide: Military topography. The dimensions of the earth's ellipsoid at different times were determined by many scientists based on the materials of degree measurements

Contains a complete course of military topography. The presentation is distinguished by brevity, full coverage of the material, accessibility and clarity of presentation. It is intended to teach students how to study and assess the terrain, navigate it, use topographic and special maps, geodetic data and photographic documents, as well as make measurements on the ground when organizing, conducting combat operations and commanding troops. It is based on a course of lectures and practical exercises conducted by the authors for several years at the Faculty of Military Education. Corresponds to FSES HE 3+ and the content of the cycle of disciplines F.01 "Military training" of state educational standards for the preparation of bachelors and masters. For students of higher educational institutions studying the discipline "General tactics".

The work belongs to the genre Educational literature. It was published in 2017 by Knorus. On our site you can download the book " Military topography" in fb2, rtf, epub, pdf, txt format or read online. The book's rating is 3.67 out of 5. Here you can also refer to the reviews of readers who are already familiar with the book before reading and find out their opinion. In our partner's online store you can buy and read the book in hard copy.

Name: Military topography.

This textbook outlines the course of military topography, the knowledge of which is necessary for every officer.
The first section of the textbook discusses the classification, mathematical basis and geometric essence topographic maps, their content, methods of reading and measuring them. It also discusses the properties of aerial photographs, the basics of their military interpretation and the rules for their use in solving combat missions.
The second section is devoted to orientation on the ground in various ways, including using navigation equipment.
In the third section, in relation to the practical activities of unit commanders, the use of maps for studying the terrain, assessing its tactical properties, commanding troops and target designation in various types of combat, as well as compiling combat graphic documents, the procedure and methods for conducting reconnaissance of the area are considered.
The appendix contains samples of topographic maps, tables of symbols, various types of aerial photographs.

The terrain is one of the main and constantly operating factors in the combat situation, which significantly affects the combat activity of the troops. Features of the terrain that affect the organization, conduct of combat and the use of military equipment are called its tactical properties. The main ones include its maneuverability and orientation conditions, camouflage and protective properties, conditions for observation and firing.
Skillful use of the tactical properties of the terrain contributes to the most effective use of weapons and military equipment, secrecy of maneuver and surprise strikes against the enemy, camouflage from observation and protection of troops from enemy fire. Consequently, when performing combat missions, each serviceman must be able to quickly and correctly study the terrain and evaluate its tactical properties.

Content
Introduction
§ 1. Subject, content, tasks and method of military topography
§ 2 Place and role of military topography in the system of combat training of troops
SECTION ONE
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS AND AERIAL IMAGES, THEIR USE IN THE TROOPS
Chapter 1. Classification, purpose and geometric essence of maps
§ 3. Main types of cards
1. Features of the cartographic image
2. General geographic and special maps
3. Classification and purpose of topographic maps
§ 4. Mathematical basis for the construction of maps
1.Geometric entity cartographic image
2. Distortions in map projections
3. Reference geodetic networks
§ 5. Projections of Soviet topographic maps
1. Projection of maps of scales 1:25,000-1:500,000
2. Map projection at a scale of 1:1000000
§ b. Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps
1. Map layout system
2. Nomenclature of map sheets
3. Selection and issuance of the nomenclature of map sheets for the required area.
Chapter 2 Map Measurements
§ 7. Measurement of distances and areas
1. Map scale
2.Measuring lines on the map
3 Accuracy of measuring distances on the map
4.Corrections in distances for slope and tortuosity of lines
5. The simplest ways to measure areas on a map
§ 8. Determination of the coordinates of terrain points and objects (targets) on the map
1. Coordinate systems used in topography
2. Determination of geographical coordinates
3. Definition of rectangular coordinates
§ 9. Measurement on the map of directional angles and azimuths
1. Azimuths and directional angles
2.Measurement and construction of directional angles on the map
3. Transition from directional angle to magnetic azimuth and vice versa
Chapter 3 Reading Topographic Maps
§ 10. System symbols on the maps
1.Completeness and detail of the image of the area
2.Principles of construction and application of symbols on maps
3 Pitchfork symbols
4.Color design (coloring) of cards
5. Explanatory signatures and digital designations
6.General rules card reading
§eleven. The image of the relief on the maps
1. Types and elementary landforms
2. The essence of the image of the relief by contour lines
3. Types of contour lines
4 Depiction by contour lines of elementary landforms
5. Features of the image by contour lines of flat and mountainous terrain
6. Conventional signs of relief elements that are not expressed by horizontal lines
Features of the relief image on maps of scales 1:500,000 and 1:1000,000
§ 12. Studying the relief on the map
1.Study of the structure and elementary landforms
2. Determination of absolute heights and mutual elevations of terrain points
3. Determination of ascents and descents
4. Determination of the shape and steepness of the slopes
§ 13. Image on maps of water bodies
1. Coastal strips and coasts of the seas, large lakes and rivers
2. Lakes, reservoirs and other bodies of water
3. Rivers, canals and other objects of river systems
4. Wells and other sources of water
5. Additional data on water bodies contained in certificates of the area on a map at a scale of 1: 200,000
§ 14. Image of vegetation cover and soil
1. The main elements of the vegetation cover
2. Soil and ground cover
§ 15. Image settlements, industrial enterprises and social and cultural facilities
1. Settlements
2.Industrial and agricultural production enterprises and facilities
3. Communication facilities, power lines, pipelines, airfields and social and cultural facilities
§ 16. Image of the road network
1.Railways
2. Highways and dirt roads
§ 17. Borders and geodetic points
1. Borders and fences
2. Geodetic points and individual local objects - landmarks
Chapter 4
§ 18. Types and properties of aerial photographs
1. Aerial photographs as reconnaissance and measuring documents
2. Types of aerial photographs
3 The use of aerial photographs in the troops
4.Geometric essence of aerial photographs
5. The concept of distortion in aerial photographs
6. Figurative properties of aerial photographs
7. The concept of photographic documents
§ 19. Preparation of aerial photographs for work
1. Linking aerial photographs to the map
2. Determining the scale of a planned aerial photograph
3. Drawing on aerial photographs the direction of the magnetic meridian
4. The concept of preparation for work and the use of promising aerial photographs
§ 20. Measurements from aerial photographs
1.Aerial photography accessories
2. Stereoscopic (volumetric) viewing of aerial photographs
3. Determination of distances and sizes of objects from aerial photographs
4. Transferring objects from an aerial image to a map
5. Determination of rectangular coordinates from aerial photographs
§ 21. Interpretation of aerial photographs
1. Unmasking (decoding) signs
2. Methods for deciphering aerial photographs
3. Reliability and completeness of interpretation of aerial photographs
4.Deciphering the objects of the area
5. The concept of deciphering tactical objects
SECTION TWO
TERRAIN ORIENTATION
Chapter 5
§ 22. Essence of orientation
§ 23. Determination of distances when orienting on the ground and target designation
1. Eye gauge
2. Determination of distances by measured angular dimensions of objects
3. Determination of distances by speedometer
4. Measurement steps
5. Determination of distances by the time of movement
§ 24. Devices and methods for determining directions and measuring angles on the ground
1. Magnetic compass and its application
2. Gyro semi-compass and its use
3. Field measurement of horizontal angles
4. Determining and maintaining the direction of movement along the heavenly bodies
§ 25. Techniques for orienting on a map (aerial photograph)
1. Map orientation
2. Determination on the map (aerial image) of your location
3. Comparison of the map with the terrain
§ 26. Orientation on the map while moving along a given route
1. Preparation for orientation
2. Orientation on the way
3.Features of orientation when moving in various conditions
4. Restoration of lost orientation
§ 27. Movement in azimuths
1.Preparation of data for movement in azimuths
2. Movement in azimuths
3. Obstacle avoidance
4. Finding your way back
5. Accuracy of movement in azimuths
§ 2S. Responsibilities of unit commanders to ensure orientation and target designation on the battlefield
1. Selection and use of landmarks
2 Orientation on the ground commanders of subordinate and supporting units
3. Measures that provide orientation during operations at night and on terrain poor in landmarks
Chapter 6
§ 29. The principle of operation and the main instruments of navigation equipment
1. The principle of determining the current coordinates of a moving machine
2.Basic instruments of navigational equipment
3. Machine location accuracy
§ 30. Preparation for orientation
1.Inspection and start-up of the equipment
2. Balancing the gyroscope of the course indicator
3.Checking the sighting device of the machine
4. Studying the route of movement and preparing the map
5. Preparation of initial data
6. Setting coordinates and directional angle
§ 31. Orientation on the ground with the help of a coordinator
§ 32. Features of preparation for work and operation of the course plotter
R SECTION THREE
USE OF CHARTS AND AERIAL IMAGES BY UNIT COMMANDERS
Chapter 7
§ 33. Preparing the card for work
1. Familiarization with the map
2. Card bonding
3.Folding the card
4.Card lift
§ 34. Basic rules for maintaining and using a work card
1.Basic rules for applying the situation to the work map
2. Using the map in reports, setting the task of compiling combat documents
§ 35
1. Determination of landmarks and goals and drawing them on the map
2. Mapping the elements of your battle order
3. Determination on the ground and mapping of fields of invisibility
§ 36. Target designation on the map and aerial photographs
1. Target designation in rectangular coordinates
2. Target designation by squares of a kilometer grid
3. Target designation from a conditional line
4. Target designation from the nearest landmarks and contours shown on the map
5. Target designation in azimuth and range to the target
6. Target designation from aerial photographs
Chapter 8
§ 37. General rules for studying and assessing the terrain
§ 38. Determination of the general nature of the terrain
§ 39. Study of the conditions of observation and camouflage properties of the terrain
1. Determination on the map of mutual visibility of points
2. Definition and mapping of fields of invisibility
3. Construction on the map of terrain profiles
4. Influence of the curvature of the Earth and atmospheric refraction on the observation range
§ 40 Study of terrain conditions
1. Study of the road network
2.Study of terrain off-road
3. Conclusions on the impact of terrain on the performance of a combat mission
§ 41. Study of the protective properties of the terrain
1. Study of the protective properties of the relief
2. Study of the protective properties of the forest and the nature of soils and soils
3. Conclusions on the influence of the protective properties of the terrain on the performance of a combat mission
§ 42. Study of the conditions of firing
1.Determination of the depth of shelter
2. Determining the angle of cover
3. Determining the elevation angle of the target
§ 43. The concept of predicting changes in terrain in the area of ​​a nuclear explosion
1. Determination of the degree of destruction of terrain objects and the heat of fires
2. Registration on the map of forecasting results
§ 44. An example of the study and assessment of the terrain on the map by the commander
motorized rifle platoon assigned to the head outpost
§ 45. An example of studying and evaluating "the terrain by the commander of a motorized rifle company during an offensive from direct contact with the enemy
Chapter 9
§ 46. Methods of reconnaissance of the area
1.Observation
2. Inspection of the area by patrols
3.Examination
§ 47. Route reconnaissance
§ 46. Reconnaissance of individual terrain objects
1.Forest reconnaissance
2. Swamp reconnaissance
3.Exploration of the river
4. The concept of reconnaissance of terrain changes in the focus of a nuclear explosion
§ 49. Graphic documents with intelligence information
1. Graphic accounting of intelligence information in units
2. Types of combat graphic documents
3. Rules for drawing combat graphic documents
4. Techniques for compiling terrain maps on a map or aerial photographs
Applications:
1. List of abbreviated signatures used on topographic maps
II. Some indicative data on the passability of the terrain
III. Making a layout on the ground
IV. Answers to examples and tasks
Alphabetical index
V. Samples of topographic maps of the USSR
VI. The image on the maps of some varieties of flat, hilly and mountainous terrain
VII. Tables of symbols for topographic maps
VIII. Clippings from maps at scales 1:50,000 and 1:100,000
IX. Samples of aerial photographs for interpretation

A program that includes a set of high quality topographic maps, some of which were created by the Russian General Staff.

Application Soviet military maps includes world topographic maps providing continuous coverage around the world at a scale of 100K-500K, road maps, terrain and satellite images from Google Maps, as well as a number of open street maps.

Nice feature of the app Soviet military maps for Android is the presence of a large number of roads that are not plotted on other maps. It is also worth noting that soviet maps have lost their relevance for developed countries, since they were created in the 80s and it is desirable to use them only for African and Asian countries. In other cases, it is recommended to use google maps and OSM layers.

Download Soviet military maps: one of the best off-road navigation apps for your Android.

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Screenshots

1. INTRODUCTORY LECTURE… 4

1.1. Purpose of military topography. four

2. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF TOPOGRAPHIC… 5

2.1 General provisions. 5

2.2 Classification of topographic maps. 5

2.3 Purpose of topographic maps. 6

2.4 Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. 7

2.4.1. Drawing topographic maps. 7

2.4.2. Nomenclature of sheets of topographic maps. eight

2.4.3. Selection of map sheets for a given area. ten

3. MAIN TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS CARRIED OUT ON THE TOPOGRAPHIC MAP. ten

3.1. Preparation of topographic maps. ten

3.2. Measurement of distances, coordinates, directional angles and azimuths. 12

3.2.1. Topographic map scale. 12

3.2.2. Measurement of distances and areas. 13

3.2.3. Coordinate systems used in topography. fourteen

3.2.4. Angles, directions and their relationship on the map. 16

3.2.5. Determination of geographical coordinates of points on a topographic map. eighteen

3.2.6. Determination of rectangular coordinates of points on a topographic map. 19

3.2.7. Measurement of directional angles and azimuths. 19

4. READING TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS. twenty

4.1. The system of symbols on the topographic map. twenty

4.1.1. Elements of the system of symbols. twenty

4.2. General rules for reading topographic maps. 21

4.3. Image on topographic maps of the area and various objects. 21

5. DETERMINATION OF DIRECTIONS AND DISTANCES IN ORIENTATION. 23

5.1. Definition of directions. 23

5.2 Determination of distances. 23

5.2 Movement in azimuths. 23

6. WORKING WITH THE MAP… 24

6.1 Preparing the card for work. 24

6.2. Basic rules for maintaining a work card. 25

7. DEVELOPING SCHEMES OF THE TERRAIN. 28

7.1. The purpose of the terrain schemes and the basic rules for their compilation. 28

7.2. Symbols used on the maps of the area. 29

7.3. Ways of drawing up schemes of the area. thirty

CHANGE RECORDING SHEET… 33

The actions of subunits and units in the performance of assigned tasks are always associated with the natural environment. The terrain is one of the constantly operating factors influencing combat activity. Terrain properties that affect the preparation, organization and conduct of hostilities, the use of technical means, are usually called tactical.

These include:

patency;

orientation conditions;

the conditions of observation;

conditions for firing

masking and protective properties.

Skillful use of the tactical properties of the terrain ensures the most effective use of weapons and technical means, secrecy of maneuver, etc. Each soldier must be able to competently use the tactical properties of the terrain. This is taught by a special military discipline - military topography, the foundations of which are necessary in practical activity.

The word topography in Greek means a description of the area. Thus, topography is a scientific discipline, the subject of which is a detailed study of the earth's surface in geometric terms and the development of methods for depicting this surface.

Military topography is a military discipline about the means and methods of studying the terrain and its use in the preparation and conduct of hostilities. The most important source of information about the area is a topographic map. It should be noted here that Russian and Soviet topographic maps have always been superior in quality to foreign ones.

Despite the technical backwardness of Russia, by the end of the 19th century, in 18 years, the best three-verst map in the world at that time (3 versts in 1 inch) on 435 sheets was created. In France, 34 sheets of a similar map were created for 64 years.

During the years of Soviet power, our cartography took first place in the world in terms of the technique and organization of the production of topographic maps. By 1923, a unified system of layout and nomenclature for topographic maps had been developed. scale series The USSR has an obvious advantage over those in the USA, England (England has 47 different scales, which are difficult to coordinate with each other, the United States has its own coordinate system in each state, which does not allow joining sheets of topographic maps).

Russian topographic maps have twice as many symbols as the maps of the USA and England (the maps of the USA and England do not have symbols for the qualitative characteristics of rivers, road networks, bridges). In the USSR, since 1942, a unified coordinate system has been operating on the basis of new data on the size of the earth. (In the United States, data on the size of the Earth are used, calculated back in the last century).

The map is the constant companion of the commander. According to it, the commander performs a whole range of works, namely:

clarifies the problem

· conducts calculations;

Evaluates the situation

makes a decision;

assigns tasks to subordinates;

organizes interaction;

Conducts target designation;

Reporting on the course of hostilities.

This clearly shows the role and significance of the map as a means of managing units. The main map of the unit commander is a 1:100,000 scale map. It is used in all types of combat operations.

Therefore, the most important tasks of the discipline is the study of topographic maps and the most rational ways to work with them.

An image of the earth's surface with all its characteristic details can be built on a plane using certain mathematical rules. As noted in the introductory lecture, the enormous practical value maps is due to such features of the cartographic image as clarity and expressiveness, purposefulness of the content and semantic capacity.

Geographic map- this is a reduced, generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane, built in a certain cartographic projection.

A cartographic projection should be understood as a mathematical method for constructing a grid of meridians and parallels on a plane.

general geographic;

special.

General geographic maps include maps that depict all the main elements of the earth's surface with completeness, depending on the scale, without any particular emphasis on any of them.

General geographic maps, in turn, are divided into:

topographic;

hydrographic (sea, river, etc.).

Special maps are maps that, unlike general geographic maps, have a narrower and more specific purpose.

Special maps used in headquarters are created in advance in peacetime or during preparation and during combat operations. Of the special cards, the following are most widely used:

survey-geographic (for the study of theater of operations);

blank cards (for the production of information, combat and reconnaissance documents);

· maps of communication routes (for a more detailed study of the road network), etc.

Before considering the principles by which topographic maps are classified, let's define what should be understood as topographic maps.

Topographic maps are general geographical maps on a scale of 1:1,000,000 and larger, depicting the area in detail.

Our topographic maps are nationwide. They are used both for the defense of the country and in solving national economic problems.

This is clearly shown in Table 1.

Table number 1.

Topographic scales	Classification of topographic maps in scale	Classification of topographic maps by main purpose
	large scale medium scale	tactical
1: 200 000 1: 500 000 1: 1 000 000	« « small-scale	Topographic maps serve as the main source of information about the terrain and are one of the most important means of command and control. According to topographic maps, it is carried out: study of the area; orientation; Calculations and measurements; a decision is made; preparation and planning of operations; organization of interaction; setting tasks for subordinates, etc. Topographic maps have found very wide application in command and control (working maps for commanders of all levels), as well as as the basis for combat graphic documents and special maps. Now let's take a closer look at the purpose of topographic maps of various scales. Maps of scales 1:500,000 - 1:1,000,000 are used to study and assess the general character of the terrain in the preparation and conduct of operations. Maps at a scale of 1:200,000 are used to study and assess the terrain in the planning and preparation of combat operations of all branches of the armed forces, their control in battle, and marches. A feature of a map of this scale is that on its back a detailed information about the terrain depicted on it (settlements, relief, hydrography, soil map, etc.) is printed. A 1:100,000 scale map is the main tactical map and is used for a more detailed study of the terrain compared to the previous map and for assessing its tactical properties, commanding units, target designation, and carrying out the necessary measurements. Topographic maps of scales 1: 100,000 - 1: 200,000 serve as the main means of orientation on the march. A 1:50,000 scale map is used primarily in defense situations. A 1:25,000 scale map is used for a detailed study of individual areas of the terrain, for making accurate measurements, and calculations during the construction of military facilities. 2.4.1. Drawing topographic maps. Topographic maps are divided into separate sheets by lines of meridians and parallels. Such a division is convenient because the frames of the sheets accurately indicate the position on the earth's ellipsoid of the area depicted on this sheet. The system of dividing a topographic map into separate sheets is called a map layout. The entire surface of the Earth is divided by parallels through 4 ° into rows, and by meridians through 6 ° - into columns. The sides of the formed trapezoids serve as the boundaries of the map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000. The principle of delineating a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 is clearly visible in Figure 1. Figure 1. Scheme of the layout of the map at a scale of 1:1,000,000. Now let's define row and column. Row - a set of trapezoid sheets of maps at a scale of 1: 1,000,000, enclosed between adjacent parallels with a latitude difference of 4 °. In total there are 22 rows in each hemisphere. They are designated from the equator to the poles in capital letters of the Latin alphabet: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V . Column - a set of trapezium sheets of maps at a scale of 1: 1,000,000, lying between adjacent meridians with a longitude difference of 6 °. There are 60 columns in total and they are counted from the meridian 180 ° counterclockwise. Now we have considered how a map is drawn at a scale of 1: 1,000,000. Further, the sheets of this map will serve as the basis for obtaining sheets of maps of other scales. A sheet of a millionth map (hereinafter, for simplicity, we will call a map of a scale of 1:1,000,000) corresponds to an integer number of map sheets of other scales, a multiple of four. For example, 1:500,000-4 sheets, 1:200,000-36 sheets, 1:100,000-144 sheets. 2.4.2. Nomenclature of sheets of topographic maps. The nomenclature of sheets of topographic maps is the system of their designation (numbering). As noted earlier, the designation of sheets of topographic maps of any scale is based on the nomenclature of sheets of a millionth map, which consists of the designation of a row and a column at the intersection of which this sheet is located. For example, for a sheet with point A in Fig. 1, the nomenclature will look like this S -36. As we have already noted, a sheet of a millionth map corresponds to an integer number of sheets of maps of other scales. To get a map of scale 1: 500,000, a sheet of a millionth map is divided into four parts, which are indicated by capital letters A, B, C, D of the Russian alphabet, as shown in Figure 2. 1: 500,000 (S - 36 - B) Figure 2. Chart layout for maps at a scale of 1: 500,000. The nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1: 500,000 is made up of the nomenclature of a sheet of a millionth map (S - 36) with the addition of the corresponding (letter) designation indicating the place of this sheet (for a shaded square it will be - B). Therefore, the nomenclature of this sheet will look like this: S - 36 -B. To get a map at a scale of 1:200,000, you need to divide a sheet of a millionth map into 36 parts and designate them with Roman numerals, as shown in Figure 3: 1:200,000 (S–36–III) Figure 3 The principle of compiling the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:200,000 is similar to that discussed above. For example, the nomenclature of the map sheet indicated by the shaded square is S - 36 - III. To get a map at a scale of 1:100,000, it is necessary to divide a sheet of a millionth map into 144 parts and designate them with Arabic numerals as shown in Figure 4. 1: 100,000 (S - 36 - 100) Figure 4. Scheme for laying out maps at a scale of 1: 100,000. To obtain map sheets at a scale of 1:50,000, a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:100,000 is taken as a basis, which is divided into 4 parts and indicated in capital letters A, B, C, D, as shown in Figure 5. Then the nomenclature of this map (1: 50,000) will consist of sheet nomenclature 1:100,000 (S - 36 - 12) with the addition of a letter indicating the location of the shaded square (B). Finally, it will look like this - S - 36 - 12-B. S - 36 - 100 - B - d Figure 6. Scheme for laying out sheets of maps at a scale of 1:25,000. The nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:25,000 will be composed of the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:50,000 (S - 36 - 12 - B) with the addition of a letter indicating the position of this sheet (d). For example: the nomenclature of the map sheet indicated by the shaded square in Figure 6 will be S - 36 - 12 - B - d. 2.4.3. Selection of map sheets for a given area. To select the necessary sheets of topographic maps for a specific area and quickly determine their nomenclature, there are special prefabricated tables. They are schematic blank maps of a small scale, divided by vertical and horizontal lines into cells, each of which corresponds to a strictly defined map sheet of the corresponding scale. On prefabricated tables indicate the scale of the maps to which it corresponds, the signatures of the meridians and parallels, the designations of the columns and rows of the layout of the millionth map, as well as the numbers of sheets of maps of a larger scale within the sheet of the millionth map. To select map sheets for a given area, it is outlined on the prefabricated table with a contour, and then the list of map sheet nomenclatures is made from left to right and from top to bottom. Moreover, it is also necessary to write out the nomenclatures of sheets that cross the contour of the district. If there is a map sheet, the nomenclature of adjacent sheets can be determined by the signatures of the nomenclatures on the outer sides of its frames. Topographic maps are published in separate sheets, limited by frames. The sides of the inner frames are the lines of parallels and meridians, which are divided into segments equal in degrees to 1´ on maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:200,000 and 5´ on maps of scales 1:500,000 - 1:1,000,000. Segments through one painted over with black paint. Each minute interval on maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 is divided by points into six parts of 10´´. Minute segments along the northern and southern sides of the map frame at a scale of 1:100,000, located within latitudes of 60 - 76º, are divided into three parts, and those located north of 76º - into two parts. Since the meridians approach the poles and, consequently, the linear dimensions of the northern and southern sides of the frames decrease with increasing latitude, for areas north of the 60º parallel, topographic maps of all scales are published in double longitude sheets, and north of the 76º parallel, a 1: 200,000 scale map is published in triple sheets , maps of other scales - quadruple sheets. The nomenclature of double, triple or quadruple sheets contains the designations of all individual sheets (table 2). Table 2. Sheet nomenclature double built quadruple T-45-A, B,46-A, B T-43-ІΥ,Υ,ΥІ T-41-141,142,143,144 R-41-133-A, B T-41-141,142,143,144 Р-41-133-А-а, b T-41-141-A-a, b, B-a, b Inside the frame, on the working field of the map, a coordinate grid is plotted (rectangular coordinates - for maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:200,000 or geographical - for scales 1:500,000 and 1: 1,000,000). All topographic map design elements that are outside the frame are called border design elements. They carry additional information about this map sheet. Border elements include: 1. Coordinate system; 2. The name of the republic and region, the territory of which is depicted on this sheet; 3. Name of the agency that prepared and issued the map; 4. Name of the most significant population of the point; 5. Vulture of the card; 6. Nomenclature of the map sheet; 7. Year of issue of the card; 8. Year of filming or compilation and source materials; 9. Performers; 10. Scale of foundations; 11. Numerical scale; 12. Scale value; 13. Linear scale; 14. Section height; 15. Height system; 16. Scheme of the mutual arrangement of the vertical installation of the coordinate grid, the true and magnetic meridians, the magnitude of the magnetic declination, the convergence of the meridians and the correction of the direction; 17. Data on magnetic declination, convergence of meridians and annual change in magnetic declination. The location of the marginal design elements is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7. Arrangement of border elements for maps. 3.2.1. Topographic map scale. Before proceeding to the consideration of the measurement procedure, let us dwell in more detail on the scale of the map, as one of its most important characteristics. Map scale - the degree of reduction of lines on the map relative to the horizontal distances of the corresponding lines on the ground. When measuring distances, numerical and linear scale expressions are widely used. These data are plotted on the map under the south side of the map frame. Let's consider in more detail the concepts: numerical scale, scale value, linear scale. Numerical scale - the ratio of one to a number, showing how many times the lengths of the terrain lines are reduced when they are displayed on the map (expressing the scale in numerical form). It is indicated on maps as a ratio 1: M, where M is a number indicating how many times the lengths of lines on the ground are reduced when they are depicted on a map. For example, a scale of 1:50,000 means that any unit of length on the map corresponds to 50,000 of the same units on the ground. The scale value is the distance on the ground in meters (kilometers), corresponding to 1 cm of the map. For example: for a map at a scale of 1:50,000, 1 centimeter will be 500 meters. The scale value on the maps is indicated under the numerical scale. Linear scale - a graphic expression of the scale in the form of a scale (pos. 13 in Figure 7). 3.2.2. Measurement of distances and areas. Straight lines are usually measured with a ruler, while winding and broken lines are usually measured with a curvimeter or compass. If no one doubts the order of measuring the distance between two points in a straight line, then we will dwell on the measurement of winding and broken lines in more detail. There are two ways to measure broken and winding lines with a compass: a) the method of increasing the solution of the compass; b) the "step" of the compass. When measuring distances with a “step” of a compass, it must be remembered that the smaller the compass opening, the smaller the measurement error. When using a numerical scale, the distance in centimeters taken from the map is multiplied by the scale value and the distance on the ground is obtained. For example: map 1:50,000 - the distance on the map is 2.5 cm, which means that on the ground it will be 2.5 x 500 = 1250 meters. When using a linear scale, you need to attach a compass or ruler to it and count the number showing the distance between points on the ground. Practice shows that it is important to accurately determine the price of one division (depending on the scale of the map) of a linear scale in order to avoid errors in the calculation. As a rule, all measurements must be carried out at least twice, which increases the accuracy of the result. If the compass opening exceeds the length of the linear scale, then the integer number of kilometers is determined by the squares of the coordinate grid. As already noted, a special curvimeter device is used to measure distances. The mechanism of this device consists of a measuring wheel connected by a system of gears with an arrow on the dial. When measuring, the arrow of the curvimeter is set to zero division and then rolled in a vertical position along the measured line, the resulting reading is multiplied by the scale of this map. The accuracy of measurements on the map depends on many factors: measurement error, depending on the tool used and the accuracy of working with it, map errors, errors due to wrinkling and deformation of the paper. The average measurement error ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 cm on the map scale. Errors in determining distances from topographic maps of various scales are shown in Table 3. Table 3 In addition, the length of the route measured on the map will always be somewhat shorter than the actual one, since when compiling maps, especially small-scale ones, roads are straightened. In hilly and mountainous areas, there is a significant difference between the horizontal laying (projection) of the route and its actual length due to ascents and descents. For these reasons, the length of the route measured on the map must be corrected (Table 4). Table 4 The measurement of areas is carried out approximately, according to the squares of the kilometer grid (the square of the grid of maps at a scale of 1:25,000 - 1:50,000 on the ground corresponds to 1 km², at a scale of 1:100,000 - 4 km², at a scale of 1:200,000 - 16 km²). The area of ​​a piece of terrain is determined on the map most often by counting the squares of the coordinate grid covering this area, and the size of the shares of the squares is determined by eye or using a special palette on the officer's ruler (artillery circle). If the area on the map has a complex configuration, it is divided by straight lines into rectangles, triangles, trapezoids and the area of ​​​​the resulting figures is calculated. 3.2.3. Coordinate systems used in topography. Coordinates are called angular or linear quantities that determine the position of points on any surface or in space. There are many different coordinate systems that are used in various fields of science and technology. In topography, those are used that allow the most simple and unambiguous determination of the position of points on the earth's surface. This lecture will cover geographic, flat rectangular and polar coordinates. Geographic coordinate system. In this coordinate system, the position of any point on the earth's surface relative to the origin is determined in angular measure. The point of intersection of the initial (Greenwich) meridian with the equator is taken as the origin of coordinates in most countries (including ours). Being the same for our entire planet, this system is convenient for solving problems of determining the relative position of objects located at a considerable distance from each other. The geographical coordinates of a point are its latitude (B, φ) and longitude (L, λ). The latitude of a point is the angle between the equatorial plane and the normal to the surface of the earth's ellipsoid passing through the given point. Latitudes are counted from the equator to the poles. In the northern hemisphere, latitudes are called north, in the south they are called south. The longitude of a point is the dihedral angle between the plane of the prime meridian and the plane of the meridian of the given point. The account is kept in both directions from the initial meridian from 0º to 180º. The longitude of points to the east of the prime meridian is east, to the west is west. Geographic grid depicted on maps by lines of parallels and meridians (only in full on maps at a scale of 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000). On maps of a larger scale, the internal frames are segments of meridians and parallels, their latitude and longitude are signed at the corners of the map sheet. System of flat rectangular coordinates. Plane rectangular coordinates are linear quantities, the abscissa X and the ordinate Υ, which determine the position of points on the plane (on the map) relative to two mutually perpendicular axes X and Υ. For the positive direction of the coordinate axes, it is accepted for the abscissa axis (the axial meridian of the zone) - the direction to the north, for the ordinate axis (equator) - to the east. This system is zonal, i.e. it is set for each coordinate zone (Figure 8), into which the Earth's surface is divided when depicted on maps. The entire earth's surface is conditionally divided into 60 six-degree zones, which are counted from the zero meridian counterclockwise. The origin of coordinates in each zone is the point of intersection of the axial meridian with the equator. The origin of coordinates occupies a strictly defined position on the earth's surface in the zone. Therefore, the planar coordinate system of each zone is related both to the coordinate system of all other zones, and to the geographic coordinate system. With such an arrangement of the coordinates of the axes, the abscissa of points to the south of the equator and the ordinate to the west of the middle meridian will be negative. In order not to deal with negative coordinates, it is customary to conditionally consider the coordinates of the starting point in each zone X=0, Υ=500 km. That is, the axial meridian (X axis) of each zone is conditionally moved to the west by 500 km. In this case, the ordinate of any point located to the west of the central meridian of the zone will always be positive and less than 500 km in absolute value, and the ordinate of a point located to the east of the central meridian will always be greater than 500 km. Thus, the coordinates of point A in the coordinate zone will be: x = 200 km, y = 600 km (see Figure 8). To link ordinates between zones, to the left of the ordinate record, the point is assigned the number of the zone in which this point is located. The coordinates of the point obtained in this way are called complete. For example, the full rectangular coordinates of a point are: x=2567845, y=36376450. This means that the point is located 2567km 845m north of the equator, in zone 36 and 123km 550m west of the central meridian of this zone (500 000 - 376450 = 123550). A coordinate grid is built in each zone on the map. It is a grid of squares formed by lines parallel to the coordinate axes of the zone. The grid lines are drawn through an integer number of kilometers. On a map of scale 1: 25,000, the lines forming the coordinate grid are drawn through 4 cm, i.e. after 1 km on the ground, and on maps of a scale of 1: 50,000-1: 200,000 - after 2 cm (1.2, and 4 km on the ground). The coordinate grid on the map is used when defining rectangular coordinates and plotting points (objects, targets) on the map by their coordinates, measuring directional angles of directions on the map, target designation, finding various objects on the map, approximate determination of distances and areas, as well as when orienting the map on the ground. The coordinate grid of each zone has a digitization that is the same in all zones. The use of linear quantities to determine the position of points makes the system of flat rectangular coordinates very convenient for making calculations when working on the ground and on the map. Figure 8. Coordinate zone of the system of flat rectangular coordinates. Polar coordinates This system is local, and is used to determine the position of some points relative to others in relatively small areas of the terrain, for example, when targeting, marking landmarks and targets, and determining data for movement along azimuths. Elements of the system of polar coordinates are shown in fig. 9. OR is the polar axis (it can be a direction to a landmark, a meridian line, a vertical line of a kilometer grid, etc.). θ - position angle (will have a specific name depending on the direction taken as the initial one). OM - direction to the target (landmark). D - distance to the target (landmark). Figure 9. Polar coordinates. 3.2.4. Angles, directions and their relationship on the map. When working with a map, it often becomes necessary to determine the direction to some points of the terrain relative to the direction taken as the initial one (the direction of the true meridian, the direction of the magnetic meridian, the direction of the vertical line of the kilometer grid). Depending on which direction will be taken as the initial one, there are three types of angles that determine the direction to the points: True azimuth (A) - the horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0º to 360º between the north direction of the true meridian of a given point and the direction of the object. Magnetic azimuth (Am) - the horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0º to 360º between the northern direction of the magnetic meridian of a given point and the direction of the object. Directional angle a (DU) is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0º to 360º between the northern direction of the vertical grid line of a given point and the direction to the object. To carry out the transition from one angle to another, it is necessary to know the direction correction, which includes magnetic declination and convergence of meridians (see Fig. 10). Figure 10. Scheme of the relative position of the true, magnetic meridians, the vertical line of the coordinate grid, magnetic declination, convergence of meridians and direction corrections. Magnetic declination (b, Sk) - the angle between the northern directions of the true and magnetic meridians at a given point. When the magnetic needle deviates to the east from the true meridian, the declination is east (+), to the west - west (-). Meridian convergence (ﻻ, Sat) - the angle between the north direction of the true meridian and the vertical line of the coordinate grid at a given point. When the vertical line of the coordinate grid deviates to the east from the true meridian, the convergence of the meridians is east (+), to the west - west (-). Correction direction (PN) - the angle between the north direction of the vertical grid line and the direction of the magnetic meridian. It is equal to the algebraic difference between the magnetic declination and the convergence of the meridians. ST = (± δ) – (± ﻻ) The values ​​of PN are removed from the map or calculated by the formula. We have already considered the graphic relationship between the corners, and now we will consider several formulas that determine this relationship: Am \u003d α - (± PN). α = Am + (± PN). The indicated angles and direction correction are found in practice when orienting on the ground, for example, when moving along azimuths, when using a protractor (officer's ruler) or an artillery circle on the map, directional angles are measured to landmarks located on the route of movement, they are converted into magnetic azimuths, which measured on the ground with a compass. 3.2.5. Determination of geographical coordinates of points on a topographic map. As noted earlier, the frame of the topographic map is divided into minute segments, which, in turn, are divided by dots into second divisions (the division price depends on the scale of the map). Latitudes are indicated on the sides of the frame, longitudes are indicated on the northern and southern sides.

∙ .
oprkgshrr298nk29384 6000tmzschomzschz

Figure 11. Determination of geographic and rectangular coordinates on a topographic map.

Using the minute frame of the map, you can:

1. Determine the geographical coordinates of any point on the map.

To do this, you need (example for point A):

Draw a parallel through point A

determine the number of minutes and seconds between the parallel point A and the southern parallel of the map sheet (01 '35 ”);

add the received number of minutes and seconds to the latitude of the southern parallel of the map and get the latitude of the point, φ = 60º00′ + 01′ 35″ = 60º 01′ 35″

draw the true meridian through t. A

Determine the number of minutes and seconds between the true meridian t.A and the western meridian of the map sheet (02′);

· add the received number of minutes and seconds to the longitude of the western meridian of the map sheet, λ = 36º 30′ + 02′ = 36º 32′

2. Draw a point on a topographic map.

For this, it is necessary (example for T.A. φ = 60º 01′ 35″, λ = 36˚ 32́׳).

On the western and eastern sides of the frame, determine points with a given latitude and connect them with a straight line;

on the northern and southern sides of the frame, determine points with a given longitude and connect them with a straight line;

· the intersection of these lines gives the location of point A on the map sheet.

3.2.6. Determination of rectangular coordinates of points on a topographic map.

The map has a coordinate grid (see Fig. 12), which is digitized. The inscriptions near the horizontal lines indicate the distance in kilometers from the equator (6657 - 6657 km from the equator), near the vertical lines - indicate the number of the coordinate zone and the distance in kilometers from the conditional meridian of the zone (the last three digits). For example: 7361 (7 is the zone number, 361 is the distance in km from the central meridian of the zone).

On the outer frame, the outputs of the coordinate lines (additional grid) of the coordinate system of the adjacent zone are given.

According to the coordinate grid, you can:

1. Carry out target designation on the map.

In order to approximately determine the location of an object (located in a certain square on the map), kilometer lines are indicated, the intersection of which forms the southwestern (lower left) corner of this square. First, the abscissa (X) is indicated, and then the ordinate (Y).

For example (see fig. 11): the object is in the square fifty-eight, sixty-four; the recording form is 5864. If it is necessary to indicate a more precise location of the target, the square is mentally divided into four or nine parts (snail).

For example: 5864 - B; 5761-9.

2. Determine the rectangular coordinates of any point on the map.

To do this, you need (example for t.B):

· write down the abscissa of the lower kilometer line of the square in which the point is located (6657 km);

measure the distance between the lower kilometer line of the square and t.b. (650m)

· add the obtained value to the abscissa of the lower kilometer line;

X \u003d 6657 000 m + 650 m \u003d 6657 650 m

· write down the ordinate of the left kilometer line of the square in which the point is located - 7363 km;

Measure the distance between the left kilometer line and point B (600m);

· add the obtained value to the ordinate of the left kilometer line;

Y \u003d 7363000m + 600m \u003d 7363600 m

3. Put a point on the map using rectangular coordinates.

To do this, it is necessary (example for t.B. X=57650 m, Y=63600 m - determine the square in which point B is located (5763) by the number of whole kilometers);

Set aside from the lower left corner of the square a segment equal to the difference between the abscissa of point B and the lower side of the square - 650 m;

From the obtained point along the perpendicular to the right, set aside a segment equal to the difference between the ordinate of point B and the left side of the square - 600 m.

3.2.7. Measurement of directional angles and azimuths.

Measurement and construction of directional angles on the map is performed by a protractor. The protractor scale is built in degrees.

The reference point for measuring directional angles is the northern direction of the vertical kilometer line.

The translation of the directional angle into the magnetic azimuth is carried out in accordance with the formulas specified in clause 3.2.4.

Azimuths are measured using such simple instruments as the Andrianov compass.

On topographic maps, the area is depicted with the greatest possible completeness and detail, depending on the scale of the map. Maps give a holistic picture of the area, depicting all of its most important components (relief, local objects, communication routes, vegetation, etc.). A detailed image of the relief allows you to obtain data on the position of any point, not only in plan, but also in height. The larger the scale of the map, the more objects are shown on it. For example, tactical maps show, if possible, all objects and their features that are important for the troops. Operational maps display the most significant of them, summarized by many indicators.

For the correct reading of the map, it is necessary to understand the symbols used and perceive them figuratively. Solid assimilation of conventional signs is achieved not by their mechanical memorization, but by mastering the principle of construction and the logical connection between form and semantic meaning.

On topographic maps, a single notation system is used, consisting of:

conventional signs;

color design;

explanatory signatures;

The basis of the system is conventional signs and their color design. The rest is of secondary importance.

4.1.1. Elements of the system of symbols.

Conditional signs.

According to their purpose and properties, conventional signs are divided into: linear, areal, off-scale.

Linear conventional signs objects are depicted, the extent of which is expressed on the scale of the map.

Areal symbols fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of the map.

Each such sign consists of a contour and an explanatory designation that fills it in the form of background coloring, color shading or a grid of identical icons. Areal signs drawn inside the contour of an object (swamp, garden) do not indicate their position on the ground.

Off-scale ( dotted) signs depict small-sized objects that are not expressed on the scale of the map and are represented as a point. The figured drawing of such a sign includes this point. She is situated:

for signs of a symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure;

for signs with a base in the form of a right angle - at the top of the corner;

for signs representing a combination of several figures - in the center of the lower figure;

for signs that have a base - in the middle of the base.

Off-scale signs also include signs of roads, rivers and other linear objects, in which only their length is expressed on a scale. It is impossible to determine the sizes of objects by these signs.

Color design.

Maps are printed in ink to improve readability. Their colors are standard and approximately correspond to the color of the depicted objects:

· green (forests, shrubs, plantations…);

blue (water bodies, glaciers);

brown (relief, soils);

orange (freeways and highways, fire-resistant buildings);

yellow (non-fire-resistant buildings);

black (dirt roads, borders, various buildings, structures).

Explanatory captions

They give additional characteristics of terrain objects: their own names, their purpose, quantitative and qualitative characteristics.

Signatures are in some cases accompanied conventional icons, for example, when characterizing the forest, indicating the direction of the flow of the river, its speed of flow.

They are divided into full (own names of rivers, settlements, mountains, etc.) and abbreviated (explain the meaning of some signs). For example: mash - machine-building plant, vdkch - water pump.

Numerical designations .

They are used when specifying the numerical characteristics of objects.

For example:

· Osipovo- the number of houses in rural settlements;

· 148.5 - the absolute height of the point (relative to the mean level of the Baltic Sea);

M 50 - metal bridge, length - 100 m, width - 10 m, load capacity - 50 tons.

Steam. 150 - 4x3- ferry, 150 - the width of the river in this place, 4x3 - 8

ferry dimensions in meters, 8 - carrying capacity in tons.

Reading a topographic map is called correct and complete perception of the symbolism of signs, fast and accurate recognition of the types of objects depicted by them.

and their characteristic properties, as well as visual perception of their spatial location.

General rules card reading are:

1. Selective attitude to the content of the cards (you need to read what relates to the problem being solved).

2. Aggregate reading of conventional signs (they should not be considered in isolation, but in conjunction with the image of the relief, other objects, etc.).

3. Memorization of what has been read.

Relief

The relief is a set of irregularities of the earth's surface, composed of various elementary forms.

The relief is depicted by contour lines, conventional signs and digital designation in the Baltic system of heights (the average level of the Baltic Sea).

Horizons (isohypses) - lines of equal heights above sea level.

They can be considered as traces of the section of the roughness of the earth by planes parallel to the level surface of the sea. The distance between the cutting planes is called the section height. It is indicated under the bottom frame of the map.

By appearance, the following horizontal lines are distinguished:

main (solid) - correspond to the height of the section;

thickened - every fifth main horizontal;

additional - are depicted through 0.5 of the height of the section with a thin dashed line;

Auxiliary - are depicted through 0.5 section heights with short strokes.

To indicate the direction of the slopes, short dashes are used, called bergstrokes.

Main landforms:

Mountain (varieties - mound, hill, height ...) - a domed elevation;

Hollow - a recessed space closed on all sides;

Ridge - an elevation elongated in one direction;

Hollow (varieties - blast furnace, beam, ravine) - an elongated depression, falling in one direction.

water bodies

Topographic maps show in detail the most important water bodies with related hydraulic structures.

The coastlines are depicted:

by the seas at the highest water level;

· near lakes, rivers according to the water level in low water (the lowest water level in summer).

Rivers and canals are depicted with maximum completeness and detail, revealing their properties and significance as water boundaries, landmarks, etc.

Vegetation cover and soils.

On maps at a scale of 1:200,000 and larger, the following data can be obtained on the vegetation cover and soil:

placement of various types of soil and vegetation;

the size of the territory;

quality characteristics.

Soil and vegetation are depicted on the maps with symbols and background coloring.

Settlements, production facilities

On maps at a scale of 1:500 0000 and larger, the external outlines, dimensions and layout of these objects are indicated in detail. Particular attention is paid to the display of streets and intersections, squares, parks and other undeveloped areas.

Quarters are depicted with a division into fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant. The black rectangles inside the blocks represent individual buildings.

All industrial and agricultural objects are shown with the corresponding symbols.

Road network

Railways are shown in black.

All roads are shown on the maps. They are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Color image:

orange - freeways and highways;

black - ground.

Improved dirt roads are marked with two black lines drawn in parallel. The width and material of the cover is signed on the map over the symbol.

Directions on the ground are determined using a compass or approximately by the sun or the North Star. The most widespread among the troops were Adrianov's and artillery compasses. Adrianov's compass allows you to measure in degrees and in thousandths, and the artillery compass - only in thousandths. The division price of the Adrianov compass is 3º or 50 thousandths, and the artillery one is 100 thousandths.

The relationship between degrees and thousands is as follows:

0 -01 =360 º = 21600 ′ \u003d 3.6′ 1 - 00 \u003d 3.6ُ 100 \u003d 6º

The definition of cardinal points by the Sun and hours is based on the fact that at 13.00 (14.00 summer time) it is in the south. To determine the south at another time, you need to turn the clock so that the hour hand is directed to the Sun, then the bisector of the angle between the hour hand and the number 1 (2) will point to the south.

The angle measured between the north direction of the magnetic needle and the direction to the target (landmark) is called the magnetic azimuth.

The distance to the observed objects is determined by:

visually

using binoculars

by speedometer

steps, etc.

The eye is the main and most fast way.

For a distance of up to 1000 m, the error does not exceed 10 - 15%.

The distance can be measured with binoculars if the linear dimensions of the object to which it is measured are known. The angle at which the object is seen is measured (in thousandths) and then the distance is calculated by the formula:

D = AT ∙ 1000 where: B - linear size, m.

У У – measured angle, thousand

Measurement in steps is used mainly when walking in azimuth. Steps are counted in pairs (~1.5m). You can also use a special device - a pedometer.

The essence of movement in azimuths is the ability to find and maintain with the help of a compass the desired or given direction of movement and accurately reach the intended point. Movement along azimuths is used when moving in areas that are poor in landmarks. The data necessary for movement along azimuths are prepared on the map. Data preparation includes:

choice of route and landmarks;

determination of Am and distances for each section;

route design.

The route and the number of landmarks on it depend on the nature of the terrain, the task and traffic conditions. If the terrain allows, then the turning points are chosen at such landmarks that you can confidently reach.

Selected landmarks are raised on the map (circled) and connected by straight lines. Then, directional angles are measured on the map (with subsequent conversion to Am) and the length of each straight section. The length of the sections is measured in meters or pairs of steps (a pair of steps is approximately taken as 1.5 m).

The order of movement in azimuths

At the original landmark, using a compass, determine the direction of movement along the second landmark and start moving with a countdown of the distance. To more accurately maintain the direction, it is necessary to use additional landmarks and movement along the alignments along the way. In the same order, but already along a different azimuth, they continue to move from the second landmark to the third, and so on.

The accuracy of reaching the landmark depends on the accuracy of determining the direction of movement and measuring distances.

The deviation from the route due to the error in determining the direction of the compass usually does not exceed 5% of the distance traveled. An error of 1º while maintaining the direction gives a lateral displacement of 20 m per 1 km of track.

Preparing the map for work includes familiarization with the map, gluing its sheets and folding the glued map.

Familiarization with the map consists in understanding its characteristics: scale, height of the relief section, year of publication, direction correction, as well as the location of the map sheet in the coordinate zone. Knowing these characteristics allows you to get an idea of ​​the geometric accuracy and detail of the map, the degree of its correspondence.

terrain, and the scale and year of publication, in addition, you need to know to indicate in the documents developed on the map.

The height of the relief section, the year of publication, the correction of the direction may not be the same for different sheets of the map. When gluing several sheets, these data may be cut off or glued, so it is advisable to write them on the back of each card sheet. You should remember the distance on the ground corresponding to 1 cm on the map, the steepness of the slopes when laying 1 cm or 1 mm, the distance on the ground between the lines of the coordinate grid. All this greatly facilitates the work with the map.

On each sheet of the map of the area of ​​operations, the units raise the signatures of the coordinate lines (nine signatures evenly spaced throughout the sheet). They are usually circled in black circles with a diameter of 0.8 cm and shaded with yellow. In this case, when targeting in a combat vehicle, it is not necessary to unfold the gluing of maps.

When using maps located at the junction of coordinate zones, it is necessary to establish which zone grid should be used and, if necessary, apply an additional grid of the adjacent zone to the corresponding map sheet.

Pasting the card.

The selected sheets of cards are laid out on the table according to their nomenclature. Then, with a sharp knife or a razor blade, cut off the right (eastern) margins of the sheets, except for the extreme right ones, as well as the lower (southern) margins of the sheets, except for the extreme lower ones. In this case, an officer's ruler can be used, which is pressed tightly against the card sheet and the unnecessary fields are cut off by moving from top to bottom and towards the ruler.

Advantages this method consists in reducing the time for preparing the card, and also in the fact that the card will wear out less in the places of gluing (when cutting with a knife, the edges of the cut will be sharp and the card will wipe off at the points of contact).

Sheets are glued into columns, and then the columns are glued together. When gluing, each top sheet is applied to the bottom sheet face down. Then, at the same time, the glued edges of both sheets are smeared with a thin layer of glue and, turning the top sheet face up, carefully place it on the northern field of the bottom sheet, precisely matching their frames, as well as the outputs of the grid lines and contours. The gluing strip is carefully smoothed out with a clean rag or with a strip of the cropped field of the card, removing the glue that has come out. Similarly, the columns are glued together from right to left.

Card folding.

The map is usually folded like an accordion so that it is convenient to use it without full deployment and carry it in a field bag.

Before folding, the unit's area of ​​operations is determined, the edges of the map are folded in proportion to the width of the field bag, and the resulting strip of the map is folded in proportion to the length of the bag. The card should be folded as tightly as possible, making sure that the bends do not fall along the gluing lines of the sheets.

Mapping the situation is called maintaining a work map. The situation is applied with the necessary accuracy, completeness and clarity.

The position of friendly troops and enemy troops marked on the working map must correspond to their location on the ground. The means of an enemy nuclear attack, his command posts and other important targets are mapped with an accuracy of 0.5 - 1 mm. The same requirements apply to mapping their firing positions, as well as the forward edge and flanks. The accuracy of applying other elements of combat formations should not exceed 3 - 4 mm. Strict observance of these requirements is necessary because effective fire support for subunits is possible only with accurate target designation.

In the conditions of modern hostilities, which are carried out at a high pace not only during the day, but also at night, the requirements for accurate maintenance of work maps have increased dramatically. Inaccurate target designation is fraught with unjustified losses, as it makes it difficult to control units in battle, disrupts the interaction of artillery and aviation with motorized rifle and tank units.

The completeness of the situation plotted on the map is determined by the amount of data needed to control subunits in combat. Excessive data on the map makes it difficult to work with it. Data on the position of their troops is usually applied two steps lower (in a battalion - up to a platoon). The detail of drawing on the map about the enemy depends on the command and control level and the functional duties of the commander (chief).

The visibility of the working map is achieved by a clear and precise depiction of the combat situation, highlighting its main elements, accurate drawing of tactical symbols and skillful arrangement of inscriptions.

Accurate and visual display of the situation on the working map largely depends on the selection and sharpening of pencils. In hot weather, hard pencils are used, and in high humidity, soft ones. Thus, to maintain a work card, you need to have a set of colored pencils of different hardness. Sharpen the pencil conically. The length of graphite free from wood should be no more than 0.5 cm. Felt-tip pens, when maintaining work cards, are used only for designing inscriptions, marking and filling out the table. It is not recommended to apply the situation with them, since the removal from the map of its individual elements, outdated or erroneously plotted, is difficult.

To plot the situation on a map, you must also have an officer's ruler, compasses, pencil eraser, penknife, curvimeter.

The order of drawing the situation on the working map.

Each officer maintains his work map personally and in such a way that any other officer can freely understand the situation displayed on it.

These conditions are applied by the established conventional signs with thin lines. At the same time, it is necessary to strive so that the topographic base of the map is as little obscured as possible and landmarks, the names of settlements, rivers, elevation marks, signatures near bridges and other numerical characteristics of terrain objects are well read on it.

The position of their troops, including technical support units, their tasks and actions are indicated in red, except for missile troops, artillery, air defense troops and special troops, which are indicated in black.

The position and actions of the enemy troops are shown in blue with the same conventional signs as those of their own troops.

The numbering and names of units and subunits and explanatory inscriptions relating to friendly troops are in black, and those relating to the enemy are in blue.

Conventional signs of troops, fire weapons, military and other equipment are applied to the map in accordance with their actual position on the ground and oriented in the direction of action or firing, conventional signs of NP, KNP, KP, anti-aircraft, radio equipment are oriented towards the north. Inside or next to the conventional signs of fire weapons, combat and other equipment, if necessary, indicate the number and type of these weapons.

The location and actions of the troops are applied by the established conventional signs with a solid line, and the intended or planned actions - with a broken line (dotted line). Spare areas for the deployment of troops and spare positions are indicated by a broken line with the letter Z inside the sign or next to it. False areas of disposition of troops, false structures and objects are indicated by a broken line with the letter L inside the sign or next to it. The length of the strokes of the broken line should be 3 - 5 mm, and the distance between the strokes - 0.5 - 1 mm.

Sources of obtaining data about the enemy are indicated in black, as a rule, by the initial letters of the names of the sources (observation - N, testimony of prisoners - P, enemy documents - DP, military intelligence - VR, aerial reconnaissance - A, etc.). The inscription is made in the form of a fraction: in the numerator - the source of information, in the denominator - the time and date, which include data about the enemy. Information requiring verification is marked with a question mark, which is placed to the right of the object (target) of the enemy.

In the absence of established conventional signs or abbreviations, additional ones are used, which are negotiated (explained) in a free place on the map.

The route of movement is shown by a brown line 0.5 - 1 mm thick, located on the southern or eastern side of the conventional road sign at a distance of 2 - 3 mm from it. When drawing the line, it is necessary to ensure that it does not obscure the conventional signs of roadside structures, bridges, embankments, cuts and other objects that can serve as landmarks or have any effect on the march. If necessary, this line should be interrupted. The explored route is shown with a solid line, and the planned (intended) and alternate route is shown with a dotted (dashed) one.

Conventional signs for designating a unit during movement are applied, as a rule, once, at the beginning of the movement route, and intermediate positions are depicted by circles (exact places) or transverse dashes (countable) places on its route, indicating the time of the position. Conventional signs of marching columns are shown from the northern or eastern side of the conventional sign of the road.

Control points are drawn on the map so that the line of the flagpole rests on the point of its location on the ground, and the figure of the sign is located in the direction opposite to the direction of its forces.

When plotting the position of a subdivision (unit) on a map at different times, conventional signs are supplemented with strokes, dots, dotted lines and other designations or shaded with different colors.

The position of own troops and enemy troops for the same time is shaded with the same icons or shaded with the same color on the inside of the symbol.

The time to which this or that position of the troops refers is indicated under the name of the unit or next to it (in a line). These inscriptions in some cases can be placed on a free place on the map with an arrow from the inscription to the symbol. Time indicate Moscow. If it is necessary to indicate local (standard) time, a reservation is made about this. Hours in minutes, day, month and year are written in Arabic numerals and separated by dots. If necessary, meteorological data necessary for assessing the radiation situation and meteorological data in the surface air layer necessary for assessing the chemical situation are applied to the map.

Local objects and landforms that can have a significant impact on fighting or be mentioned when giving orders and target designations, they raise (highlight) on the maps:

Signatures of settlements, railway stations and ports are underlined in black (if necessary, increase);

Forests, groves, gardens and shrubs are outlined along the contour with a green line;

· the coastlines of lakes and rivers are circled, and the conventional signs of rivers depicted in one line are thickened in blue;

swamps are covered again with blue shading parallel to the bottom side of the map frame; conventional signs of bridges and gates increase;

Landmarks depicted by off-scale conventional signs are circled in a black circle with a diameter of 0.5 - 1 cm;

thicken one or more horizontal lines with a light brown pencil, shade the tops of the command heights with the same color;

Signatures of elevations and contour lines are enlarged.

As a rule, lifting the map, making inscriptions (service title, signatures of the relevant officials, secrecy stamp, copy number, etc.) and applying the situation are carried out first of all, then the necessary tabular data are drawn (pasted), and the encoding of rectangular coordinates ( by grid squares) and applying an additional coordinate grid (if necessary) is done last.

Making labels on the map. The visibility and readability of the map largely depend on the good execution and correct location of the inscriptions. For the design of a work card and the application of explanatory inscriptions on it, a drawing font is recommended, which is distinguished by its clarity and ease of execution. It is characterized by the fact that the letters (numbers) in the word (number) are written separately.

Capital letters and numbers before alphabetic inscriptions have the same thickness as lowercase letters, but are written ⅓ higher than the size of lowercase letters. The angle of inclination of letters and numbers is 75º with the base of the line.

All inscriptions on the cards are placed parallel to the upper (lower) side of its frame. The height and size of the letters in the inscriptions depend on the scale of the map, the significance of the signed object or military unit, its areal size or linear extent. The spaces between letters in words are equal to ⅓ - ¼ of their height. The distance between words or between numbers and words must be at least the height capital letter. To ensure good readability of the map, the numbers and names of subordinate units, for example, a platoon (company, batteries), should be written immediately when applying their position on the map, the number and name of your company (battalion) should be put down after applying the entire situation for the company (battalion).

The inscription is placed against the middle of the front of the unit in a free place at a distance from it by about 2/3 of the depth of the battle formation. The inscriptions should be placed so that they do not intersect with the lines of tactical symbols.

The minimum height of the inscription (lowercase letters) for the lowest military level displayed on a map at a scale of 1: 50,000 is assumed to be 2 mm. With an increase in the military level by one step, the size of the inscription increases by 2 mm. For example, if the lowest military unit displayed on the map is a platoon, then the height of the lettering of the platoon will be 2 mm, the company - 4 mm, the battalion - 6 mm. The size of the explanatory inscriptions is taken equal to 2 - 3 mm. On a map at a scale of 1:25,000, the inscriptions are enlarged, and on a map at a scale of 1:100,000, they are reduced by 1.5 times.

When specifying the numbering and belonging of units, for example, 1 msv 2msr, 4msr 2 msr, the value of numbers and letters should be the same for the platoon and company (in the first example) and for the company and battalion (in the second example). The value of letters and numbers in this case is determined by the value of the military unit, standing first.

In organizing combat, commanding subunits and fire, in reconnaissance and in transmitting information, combat documents developed on topographic maps or terrain maps are widely used. Such documents are called graphic documents. They supplement, explain, and in some cases replace written documents, allowing you to more clearly display the situation. Therefore, unit commanders need to be able to compose them quickly and competently.

It is not always possible to display the necessary data in detail on a topographic map, for example, data on the location of combat assets of subunits and the enemy, the fire system, etc. In addition, due to the generalization of its content and aging, some terrain details may be missing that are necessary for the subunit commander when planning combat operations, managing division and fire. Therefore, as the basis for graphic combat documents developed in subunits, terrain maps are widely used - simplified topographic drawings of small areas of terrain, drawn up on a large scale. They are compiled by subunit commanders on the basis of a topographic map, aerial photographs, or directly on the ground using visual survey techniques, with the help of goniometric and navigational instruments available in the subunit.

There are certain rules that need to be followed when drawing up maps. First of all, you should understand what the scheme is intended for, what data and with what accuracy it is necessary to display on it. Based on this, the scale of the scheme, its size and content are determined, and the method of drawing up the scheme is chosen.

The diagrams, as a rule, show individual terrain objects that are necessary for accurately linking the situation to the terrain, have the value of landmarks, or can have a significant impact on the implementation of the task. The most important objects are highlighted when drawing a diagram. If necessary, make perspective drawings of terrain objects, placing them in a free space or in the margins of the drawing with an arrow showing their location on the diagram. Instead of drawings, photographs of objects can be pasted onto the diagram. For a more accurate indication of any object on the diagram, magnetic azimuths and distances to it from easily identifiable local objects can be signed.

Features of the area that are not expressed graphically are set out in a legend placed in the margins of the drawing or on its back.

The drawing is placed on a sheet of paper so that the enemy is on the side of the upper edge of the sheet.

In the free space of the diagram, the arrow shows the direction to the north, the ends of the arrows are signed with the letters C (north) and Yu (south).

The scale of the diagram (numerical or linear) is shown under the bottom side of its frame. If the diagram is drawn up on an approximate scale, a reservation is made about this, for example, a scale of about 1: 6000. In such cases, when the scale of the diagram is not the same in its different directions, its value is not indicated, and distances between objects are signed on the diagram, for example, distances from leading edge to landmarks.

On a diagram drawn up on a map on a certain scale, the lines of the grid are shown or they go beyond the frame of the diagram. Above the upper side of the frame of the scheme (under the name) indicate the scale, nomenclature and year of publication of the map according to which the scheme was drawn up.

Local objects and landforms on the maps of the area are depicted by conventional signs. Objects of the area, the symbols of which are not shown in the figure, are depicted on the diagrams by cartographic symbols with an increase in their size by 2 - 3 times.

Settlements are shown in black in the form of closed figures, the outlines of which are similar to the configuration of the outer boundaries of settlements. Inside such figures, shading is applied with thin lines. If the settlement consists of several quarters, separated from each other by more than 5 mm on the scale of the scheme, then each quarter is crossed out separately. Streets (drives) are shown only in those places where highways and improved dirt roads are suitable, as well as along rivers and railways passing through the settlement. The width of the conventional street sign (the distance between the lines) is taken from 1 to 2 mm, depending on the scale of the scheme and the width of the street.

Highways and improved dirt roads draw with two thin parallel lines black with a clearance of 1 - 2 mm (depending on the scale), and unpaved (country) roads - with solid lines 0.3 - 0.4 mm thick. At the point of approach of the road to the settlement, a small (0.3 - 0.5 mm) gap is made between the signs of the road and the street.

If the road drawn by a double line runs along the outskirts of the settlement, the conventional sign of the road is not interrupted, in the quarter of the settlement it is drawn close to the road sign. Blocks are drawn from the conventional sign of a dirt road at a distance of 1 - 2 mm.

Railways draw with a conventional black sign 1–2 mm wide with alternating light and dark stripes every 4–5 mm.

Rivers drawn with one or two blue lines. Inside the symbol of the river, depicted in two lines, as well as lakes, reservoirs, several thin lines are drawn parallel to the coastline. The first line is drawn as close to the shore as possible, and towards the middle of the river or reservoir, the distance between the lines is gradually increased. If the river is narrow (up to 5 mm in the diagram), dashed lines are drawn along its channel instead of solid lines.

Forest show green oval-shaped conventional signs located along the contour of the forest. First, a dotted line (dots or short dashes) marks the border of the forest with the most characteristic bends. Then semi-ovals are drawn with a length (diameter) up to 5 mm so that their convex parts touch the dotted lines. Semi-ovals should be extended along the lower (upper) edge of the sheet. If the bend of the edge serves as a guide, and it is impossible to convey it with an oval-shaped sign, the border of the forest is supplemented with a dotted line.

Bush depicted as closed green ovals, elongated from left to right. At the same time, one large oval about 3 x 1.5 mm in size is first drawn, and then three or four small ovals around it. The number and location of such signs depend on the size of the shrub area. Shrub borders are usually not shown.

Relief depict horizontal or brown strokes, and relief details that are not expressed by horizontals, cartographic conventional signs. The peaks of mountains and ridges on the diagrams of the mountainous area are depicted with strokes. On diagrams of hilly terrain, individual heights are shown by one or two closed contour lines. When depicting landforms with contour lines, it must be taken into account that the higher the mountain, the more contour lines should be, the steeper the slope, the closer the horizontal lines should be to one another. Elevation marks are signed in black and only those that are mentioned in combat documents.

Local objects that have the value of landmarks, for the display of which conventional signs are not provided (stumps, broken trees, communication line supports, power lines, road signs, etc.), are crossed out in the diagrams in perspective, that is, the way they look in kind .

Off-scale symbols, as well as symbols of vegetation cover, are crossed out so that their vertical axis is perpendicular to the upper cut of the sheet.

If there is time, the main conventional signs are set off for clarity: the right lines of the conventional signs of settlements, forests, shrubs, the left and upper shorelines of rivers and lakes are thickened.

Signatures of the names of settlements and elevation marks are placed parallel to the lower (upper) side of the scheme and are made in roman type, and the signatures of the names of rivers, streams, and lakes are made in italic type, placing them parallel to the conventional signs of rivers and streams and along the axes of the greater length of the conventional signs of lakes and tracts. Italic font also performs signatures related to the design of the scheme (document), and explanatory text.

Drawing up schemes of the area on the map.

Depending on the purpose, terrain schemes are drawn up on a map scale, in a modified (usually enlarged) or approximate scale.

On a map scale, schemes are compiled by copying the necessary elements of the map onto a transparent base (tracing paper, wax paper, plastic). If there is no transparent base, copying of the map elements can be done on opaque paper - "through the light", for example, through the glass of a window.

On a scaled scale, the diagram is as follows. On the map, a section is outlined in the form of a rectangle, which should be depicted on the diagram. Then a rectangle is built on paper, similar to the one outlined on the map, increasing its sides as many times as the scale of the diagram should be larger than the scale of the map. Within the limits of the rectangle drawn on paper, an enlarged coordinate grid is built corresponding to the coordinate grid of the map. To do this, using a ruler or compass, determine the distances from the corners of the rectangle to the points of intersection of its sides with the grid lines, put these points and sign the digital designations of the grid lines passing through them next to them. By connecting the corresponding points, a coordinate grid is obtained.

After that, the necessary elements of the map are transferred to the squares on paper. This is usually done by eye, but you can use a compass or a proportional scale. First, you need to mark on the sides of the squares the points of intersection with the lines of the objects, then, connecting these points, draw linear objects within the squares. After that, using a grid of squares and plotted objects, the remaining elements of the map are transferred. For a more accurate transfer of map elements to the diagram, the squares on the map and diagram are divided into the same number of smaller squares, which are erased after drawing the diagram.

Drawing up schemes of the terrain by methods of visual survey.

Eye survey - a method of topographic survey, performed using the simplest instruments and accessories (tablet, compass and target line). Instead of a tablet, you can use a piece of cardboard or plywood, and instead of a target line, you can use a pencil or a regular ruler. Shooting is carried out from one or more standing points. Shooting from one standing point is performed when it is necessary to depict a piece of terrain located directly around the standing point or in a given sector on the drawing.

In this case, the shooting is performed by the method of circular sighting, the essence of which is as follows.

A tablet with a sheet of paper attached to it is oriented so that the top of the future scheme is directed towards the enemy or the actions of the unit. Without changing the orientation of the tablet, they fix it on the parapet of the trench, the cab of the car, the side of the combat vehicle, etc. If there is nothing to fix the tablet on, shooting is done by holding it in your hand and orienting it according to the compass.

A standing point is applied to the sheet in such a way that the area to be removed fits completely on it. Without knocking down the orientation of the tablet, apply a ruler (pencil) to the designated standing point and, pointing it at the object to be displayed on the diagram, draw a direction.

At the end of the drawn line, the name of the object is signed or marked with a conventional sign. So consistently draw directions to all the most characteristic objects. After that, with the help of a range finder, binoculars or by eye, the distances to objects are determined and set aside on the scale of the drawing in the corresponding directions. At the points obtained, the corresponding objects (landmarks) are drawn with cartographic symbols or in perspective. Using the applied objects as the main one, visually apply and draw all the necessary objects of the area.

The scale of the diagram, as a rule, is determined by the distance from the standing point to the most distant object displayed on the diagram.

To determine directions to terrain objects, you can use a compass, with which magnetic azimuths are determined from a standing point to objects. Based on the obtained azimuths, directions to certain points relative to the selected direction are calculated and, using a protractor, they are built on paper.

Shooting from several standing points is performed when it is required to display on the diagram a large area of ​​the terrain that is not visible from one point. In this case, the point from which the shooting begins is applied to a sheet of paper arbitrarily, but in such a way that the entire area being filmed is as symmetrically located on the sheet as possible. At this point, the nearest terrain objects are plotted on the diagram with a circular sight. Then they draw a direction to the second point from which the survey will continue, and also draw and sign the directions to the objects, which should later be obtained by a notch. After that, they move to the second (subsequent) point. When moving (moving) from one shooting point to another, the distances between them are measured in steps or on a speedometer. Having set aside this distance on the scale of the drawing in the previously drawn direction, a new standing point is obtained on the diagram. At this point, the tablet is oriented along the drawn direction to the previous point and the necessary terrain objects are applied to the drawing with circular sighting and serifs. Some objects are applied to the eye relative to previously applied objects.

Topic #2

Fundamentals of military topography
Lesson #1
Topographic maps and their reading

Study questions
№
p/p
1.
2.
3.
4.
QUESTIONS
The essence of the topographic image of the area.
Mathematical and geodetic basis of maps.
Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps.
Definition of the nomenclature of adjacent sheets.
Classification of topographic elements
terrain.
The study and evaluation of terrain elements on the map.
Determination of their quantitative and qualitative
characteristics.

learning goals

Explain to students the essence of the image
terrain on topographic maps and
classification of topographic elements
terrain.
Understand the order of division and nomenclature
topographic maps, definition
nomenclature of adjacent sheets.
Literature
"Military topography".
M., Military publishing house, 2010
pp. 9-26, 35-38, 47-53, 60-64, 150-161.
For additional study: pp. 26-34, 38-47,
53-59.

1. The essence of the topographic image of the area. Mathematical and geodetic basis of maps.

Military topography
(from the Greek topos - area, graphy - I write)
- a special military discipline on the methods and
means of studying and assessing the terrain,
orientation on it and the production of field
measurements to ensure combat
activities of troops (forces), on the rules for conducting
work cards of commanders and development
graphic combat documents.

The geometric essence of the image of the earth's surface on the map.

Geographic location of points
the earth's surface is determined by their
coordinates. That's why
mathematical construction problem
cartographic image
is to design for
plane (map) spherical
Earth's surface under strict
observance of an unambiguous
correspondence between coordinates
points on the earth's surface and
their image coordinates on
map. Such a design requires
knowledge of the shape and size of the earth.

The dimensions of the earth's ellipsoid at different times were determined by many scientists based on the materials of degree measurements.

Author of the definition
Country where
published
definitions
Year
Big
semi-axis definitions
Bessel
Germany
1841
6 377 397
1:299,2
Clark
England
1880
6 378 249
1:293,5
Hayford
USA
1910
6 378 388
1:297,0
Krasovsky
USSR
1940
6 378 245
1:298,3
Compression

Horizontal spacing

When depicting the physical surface of the Earth on a map (plane), its
first project with plumb lines on a level surface, and then
already according to certain rules, this image is deployed on
plane.
On fig. horizontal distance (plan image) point, line,
broken and curved lines
The image in terms of points and lines of the earth's surface is called their
horizontal spacing or horizontal projection.

Map projections

The set of elements shown on the map and
terrain objects and reported about them
information is called
map content.
The essential features of the card are:
visibility,
measurability and
high information content.

Visibility of the map the possibility of visual
perception of spatial shapes, sizes and
placement of depicted objects.
Measurability is an important property of a map, closely
related to the mathematical basis, provides
possibility with the accuracy allowed by the scale
maps, determine the coordinates, sizes and
placement of terrain objects, use maps
in the development and implementation of various events
national economic and defense significance,
solving problems of a scientific and technical nature,
map measurability is characterized by the degree
matching the location of points on their map
location on the mapped surface.
The information content of a map is its ability
contain information about the depicted objects or
phenomena.

Displaying the surface of an ellipsoid or sphere on a plane
called a map projection. Exist
various types of map projections. To each of them
correspond to a certain cartographic grid and inherent
her distortion (area, angles and lengths of lines).
Map projections are classified:
- by the nature of the distortions,
- view of the image of meridians and parallels
(geographic grid),
- by orientation relative to the axis of rotation of the globe and
some other signs.
According to the nature of the distortions, the following are distinguished:
map projections:
- equiangular - preserving the equality of angles between
directions on the map and in kind;
On fig. world map in
conformal projection

- equal area - preserving the proportionality of areas
on the map to the corresponding areas on the earth's ellipsoid.
Mutual perpendicularity of meridians and parallels on such
the map is saved only along the middle meridian;
On fig. world map in
equal area projection
- equidistant - maintaining the constancy of scale
in any direction;
- arbitrary - not preserving their equality of angles, nor
proportionality of areas, nor constancy of scale. Meaning
application of arbitrary projections is more
uniform distribution of distortion on the map and convenience
solving some practical problems.

The content of topographic maps must be: complete, reliable, up-to-date and accurate.

The completeness of the content of the maps means that on them
all typical features should be depicted and
characteristic topographical elements reflecting in
first of all in
according to the scale of the map and its purpose.
Reliability (correct information,
depicted on the map at a certain time) and
modernity (correspondence to the current state
displayed object) maps mean that the content
cards must be in full accordance with
locality at the time of using the map.
Map accuracy (degrees of correspondence
locations of points on the map their location in
reality) means that depicted on it
topographical elements of the terrain must preserve
accuracy of its location, geometric
similarity and size in accordance with the scale of the map and
her appointment.

The main scales of topographic maps are: 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 1:200,000, 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000.

Map scale 1:25 000 (in 1cm - 250m); 1:50 000 (in 1cm - 500m) and
map scale 1:I00 000 (in 1cm - 1km) are intended for study
terrain and assessment of its tactical properties when planning a battle,
organization of interaction and command and control of troops, orientation to
terrain and target designation, topographic and geodetic binding of elements of combat
orders of troops, determining the coordinates of objects (targets) of the enemy, and
as well as a 1:25000 scale map are used in the design
military engineering facilities and the implementation of measures to
engineering equipment of the area.
Map scale 1:200,000 (in 1 cm - 2 km) is intended for studying and
assessment of the terrain when planning the combat operations of troops and
measures for their provision, command and control.
Map scale 1:500 000 (in 1 cm - 5 km) is intended for studying and
assessment of the general nature of the terrain in the preparation and conduct of operations.
It is used in the organization of interaction and management
troops, for orientation during the movement of troops (in flight) and
target designation, as well as for applying a general combat situation.
Scale map I:I 000 000 (in 1cm - 10km) is intended for general
assessment of the terrain and study of the natural conditions of areas, theater of operations,
command and control of troops and other tasks.

City plans
created in the cities
major railway junctions, naval bases and other important population centers
points to their surroundings. They are
intended for detailed study
cities and approaches to them,
orientation, performing precise
measurements and calculations in the organization and
conducting the battle.

Flight (route-flight) cards
are included in the mandatory set of pilot's equipment and
navigator and are essential for navigation purposes. On the
flight charts, the bulk of the work is done when
preparation and directly during the flight itself. At
preparation for the flight on the maps is laid and marked
route, landmarks are selected and studied and
turning points to control the path.
Flight and route charts are
essential for the purposes
navigation: reference visual
and radar
disguise, and
fulfillment
necessary measurements and
graphic constructions at
flight control.

Aeronautical and topographic charts
Onboard maps
intended for navigation in cases where
the aircraft is forced to leave the flight map, and
such for processing navigational measurements obtained from
using radio engineering and astronomical means
navigation.
Target Area Maps
- these are large-scale maps from 1:25000 to 1:200000
in the Gaussian projection. These cards are used to calculate and
determining the coordinates of given objects, for
orientation, target designation and detection of small
objects on the ground.

Aeronautical and topographic charts
Special cards
are used in solving problems of automated
the withdrawal of aircraft to ground targets, their target designation and
flight control and are designed to address
navigation tasks based on measurement data obtained from
using radio equipment. These include cards
different scales and projections on which lines are applied
provisions.
Please note that special and on-board cards may
fit together.
Reference cards
designed for various references needed
when planning and preparing for flights. These include
maps of major airfield hubs, survey navigation
maps, maps of magnetic declinations, time zones,
climatic and meteorological, star charts,
advisory and others.

2. Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. Definition of the nomenclature of adjacent sheets.

The system of dividing the map into separate sheets
is called map layout, and the system
designations (numbering) of sheets - their
nomenclature.

The basis for the designation of sheets of topographic maps of any
scale, the nomenclature of sheets of a millionth map is laid down.
Sheet nomenclature
scale maps
1:1,000,000 is made up of
row indications (letters) and
columns (numbers), in
crossing which he
located, for example,
sheet from the city of Smolensk has
nomenclature
N-36

Nomenclature of map sheets at scales 1:100,000 - 1:500,000
is composed of the nomenclature of the corresponding sheet of a millionth
cards with the addition to it of a number (numbers) or a letter indicating
the location of this sheet on it.
- sheets of scale 1:500,000 (4 sheets) are designated in Russian
capital letters A, B, C, D. Therefore, if the nomenclature
sheet of a millionth map will be, for example, N-36, then the scale sheet
1:500,000 from the city of Polensk has the nomenclature N-36-A;
- sheets of scale 1:200,000 (36 sheets) are indicated
Roman numerals from I to XXXVI. So the nomenclature
sheet from the city of Polensk will be N-36-IX;
- sheets of scale 1:100,000 are numbered from 1 to
144. For example, a sheet from the city of Polensk has the nomenclature N-36-41.
A map sheet at a scale of 1:100,000 corresponds to 4 scale sheets
1:50 000, denoted by Russian capital letters "A, B, C, G",
1:50,000 scale sheet - 4 map sheets 1:25,000, which
are indicated by lowercase letters of the Russian alphabet "a, b, c, d".
For example, N-36-41-B denotes a 1:50,000 scale sheet, and
N-36-41-В-а - sheet of scale 1:25,000.

Rules and procedure for the formation of topographic
maps of all scales

3. Classification of topographic elements of the area.

Relief
is a set of irregularities in the physical
the surface of the earth. The combination of uniform forms,
similar in appearance, structure and size and
regularly repeating on a certain
territories, form different types and
landform types.
There are two main types of relief: mountainous
relief and flat relief.
- In turn, the mountainous relief is divided into:
1. Low mountains - 500-1000 m above sea level.
2. Medium-altitude mountains - 1000-2000 m above the level
seas.
3. High mountains - over 2000 m above sea level.

The flat relief is subdivided into
flat and hilly terrain.
The flat terrain is characterized
absolute heights up to 300 m above the level
sea ​​and relative elevations up to 25
m.
The hilly area is characterized
undulating nature of the earth's surface
absolute heights up to 500 m. And
relative elevations of 25-200 m.
AT
turn hilly country into
depending on the nature of the elevations and
depressions crossed by hollows can be:
- slightly hilly (slightly hilly);
- sharply hilly (very hilly);
- valley-beam;
- ravine-beam.

Depending on the soil and vegetation cover
the area can be:
- desert (sandy, rocky, clayey);
- steppe;
- forest (wooded);
- swampy (peat bogs and wetlands);
- wooded-swampy.
To special kind refers to the area of ​​the northern regions.

Types of vegetation in the area:
tree and shrub plantings;
meadow tall grass and steppe grassy and
semi-shrub;
reed and reed thickets;
moss and lichen vegetation;
artificial plantations.

Tactical properties of the terrain

Terrain properties influencing
on the organization and conduct of combat, the use
weapons and military equipment, commonly called
tactical properties.

Tactical properties of the terrain

1.
Terrain passability
is a property of the terrain that facilitates or restricts
troop movement.
Permeability determines, first of all, the presence of a road network,
the nature of the relief, soil and vegetation cover, the presence
and the nature of rivers and lakes, seasons and weather conditions;
type of shape and steepness of slopes. Serious obstacles
are swamps.
According to the patency of the swamps are divided into:
passable, impassable and
impassable.
Depends on the specific climatic conditions of a particular area
(in winter, impassable swamps in summer can serve as convenient
ways for the movement and actions of troops).
________________________________________________________________________________________________
The passability of forests depends on the availability of roads and clearings, and
also on the density, thickness of trees and the nature of the relief.
According to the degree of indentation of the terrain by obstacles (ravines,
rivers, lakes, swamps, etc.), restricting freedom
movement on it, the area is divided into:
slightly crossed, medium crossed and
strongly crossed.

Tactical properties of the terrain
The terrain is considered to be slightly rugged, about 10% of the area
The medium terrain is characterized by the fact that
which is occupied by obstacles. If there are no obstacles or if they are
less than 10%, the terrain is classified as uncrossed.
obstacles that impede movement occupy 10-30% of its area.
If more than 30% of the area is occupied by such obstacles, the area is classified as
strongly crossed. (creates favorable conditions for secretive
approach to the front line of the enemy, but makes it difficult to move their own
divisions.

Tactical properties of the terrain

are the properties of the terrain that weaken the actions
damaging factors of nuclear and conventional weapons and
facilitating the organization of the defense of troops. They are defined
mainly by the nature of the relief and vegetation
cover.
Good shelters can serve as caves, mines,
galleries, etc. Small units as cover
can use relief details (pits, gullies, ditches,
mounds, embankments, etc.).
Large tracts of forest weaken the impact
waves of a nuclear explosion. Dense deciduous and coniferous forests
well protect against light radiation and reduce the level
penetrating radiation.

Tactical properties of the terrain

2. Protective properties of the terrain
The best protective properties against nuclear weapons
has a medium-aged dense forest, as well as a high
deciduous shrub. In a young forest and shrubs, it is excluded
defeat of troops by falling trees.
Terrain with good protective properties has
deep hollows, ravines, gullies with steep slopes and
hilly terrain.
In the mountains, the effect of the shock wave may be intensified or
weaken depending on the position of the epicenter of the nuclear
explosion in relation to the direction of the ridges and valleys. Wherein
its damaging effect can be significantly enhanced
flying fragments of rocks, as well as landslides,
rockfalls and snow avalanches.
The weakest protective properties are
desert and steppe, open and flat
the nature of which contributes to the unhindered
propagation of a shock wave, penetrating radiation and
radioactive contamination of air and terrain.

Tactical properties of the terrain
Camouflage terrain properties and conditions
observations
3.
- these are terrain properties that contribute to covert from the enemy
actions of the troops and obtaining the necessary information about him by observation. They are
determined by the degree of visibility of the surrounding area, range
review and depend on the nature of the relief, vegetation cover, inhabited
points and other objects that obstruct the view of the area.
Depending on this, the area is divided into:
open, semi-closed and closed.
The open area is devoid of natural masks,
formed by landforms and local items or they take
no more than 10% of its area. This area allows you to view
command heights almost its entire area, which creates good conditions for
observation of the battlefield, however, makes it difficult to disguise and hide from
surveillance and firing.
Terrain with hilly or flat terrain (rarely mountainous),
on which natural masks occupy about 20% of the area, refers to
to half closed. The presence of natural masks well provides
camouflage of units when located on the spot. However, about
50% of the area of ​​such terrain is visible from command heights.

Tactical properties of the terrain

closed area
allows you to view less than 25%
its area. This creates good conditions for camouflage and shelter from
enemy fire, but makes it difficult to control the unit in battle,
battlefield orientation and interaction.

Tactical properties of the terrain

Properties that affect conditions
orienteering
4.
- these are the properties of the area that contribute to the definition of its
location and desired direction of movement relative to the sides
horizon, surrounding terrain objects, as well as relatively
location of own troops and enemy troops. They are defined
the presence of characteristic relief elements and local
objects that stand out distinctly from other objects in their
appearance or position and convenient to use as
landmarks.
The assessment of orientation conditions is especially
essential in the actions of units in the mountains,
desert, steppe, wooded and swampy areas, where
few guidelines. In such cases, there are
additional orientation activities
units on the ground, the use of navigation
equipment, setting up light landmarks.

4. Study and evaluation of terrain elements on the map. Determination of their quantitative and qualitative characteristics.

A detailed study of the area is guided by the following general
rules:
1. The terrain is studied and evaluated in relation to specific
unit actions, for example, in order to organize a fire system and
surveillance, protection against weapons of mass destruction, determination
hidden approaches to enemy targets, etc.
2. The area is studied continuously, on the spot and on the move, day and night,
taking into account the influence of seasonal phenomena and weather, as well as changes that
occurred or may occur on the ground as a result of combat
actions, especially in nuclear explosions. As a result of studying
terrain, the commander must always have the most complete
and reliable information about it.
3. The area is studied and evaluated not only “for themselves”, but also “for
adversary." This allows you to establish the influence of terrain conditions on its
probable actions, on the location of his battle formations,
defensive structures and barriers, as well as to identify weak
places at the location of your unit in order to timely
take the necessary measures.

It is recommended to study the area in
this sequence:
- on the offensive - first in his
location and then location
adversary,
- in defense - on the contrary.

The list of questions to be studied, and
the details of their study are determined in
in accordance with the nature of the received combat
tasks.

Area or type of combat activity
Required to study
In the area of ​​concentration
Masking conditions and protective properties of the terrain; patency within the area and natural
obstacles; condition of roads and column tracks for advancement to the initial area, detour routes
obstacles; landmarks along the routes; deployment lines; terrain folds and
natural masks for covert movement.
In the starting area for the offensive
Conditions for observation, camouflage and firing; protective properties of the area; the nature of the approaches to
the location of the enemy and natural obstacles; command heights in position
enemy and visibility from them; patency of the terrain in the depth of the enemy’s position,
character shelter and natural masks.
When coming at night
In addition to the above, landmarks that are clearly visible at night are studied; silhouettes of elevated locals
objects, individual vertices, etc.
When attacking with overcoming the water
barriers
The general outline of the barrier in the forcing area; width, depth and speed of the current; Availability
fords, crossings and islands; the nature of the banks and slopes of the valley: the nature of the bottom soil, banks and
floodplains: approaches to a water barrier; conditions for observation, firing and camouflage; availability and
the nature of the shelter; availability of materials necessary for the equipment of crossings.
In the area of ​​defense
Command heights in the location of the enemy and visibility from them of the defense area; folds
terrain and natural masks that allow the enemy to covertly move and
accumulating for attacks: the road network at the location of the enemy; patency and
the nature of the natural obstacles in front of the leading edge; the presence of hidden approaches with
side of the enemy; observation conditions. firing and camouflage in its location:
protective properties of the area; hidden routes of movement in the defense area.
When fighting in the mountains
The main ways and directions of possible movement: roads, trails, passes, as well as command
the heights from which they are viewed; nature of river valleys and mountain rivers: conditions for conducting
fire; shelters: places of possible mountain collapses, blockages and snow avalanches during nuclear explosions.
When fighting in the forest
The nature of the forest - density, height, thickness of trees, crown density, layering; terms
orientation, observation and firing; direction, length and width of clearings;
availability and condition of forest roads; the presence of ravines, beams and heights, their characteristics; Availability
swamps, their patency; the nature of the terrain when leaving the forest.
When fighting in a populated area
paragraph
General layout; location of areas, direction and width of the main highways;
the location of solid stone buildings, bridges, telephone and telegraph stations,
radio stations, overpasses, metro stations and railway stations: underground structures
and ways of possible movement underground; rivers, canals and other bodies of water: location
water sources.
In the strip (direction) of intelligence
Passability on roads and off roads; conditions of camouflage and surveillance; hidden routes.
natural obstacles and ways to bypass them: landmarks; possible places of the device, character
area of ​​a possible meeting with the enemy.

The determination of distances by the angular dimensions of objects is based on the relationship between angular and linear quantities. This dependency is

Determination of distances by angular dimensions
objects is based on the relationship between angular and linear
quantities. This dependence is that the length of 1/6000 of any
a circle is equal to ~ 1/1000 of the length of its radius. Therefore, the division of the goniometer
usually called a thousandth (0-01), equal to 3.6 gr.
Thus, to determine the distance to an object, the dimensions
which are known, you need to find out how many thousandths of an arc of a circle
occupies the observed object.
2pR/6000=6.28R/6000=0.001R
0-01=(360g*60min)/6000=3.6g

where: D - distance to the object in meters; t is the angular magnitude of the object in thousandths; h - height (width) of the object in meters. For example, telegraph

1000h
D
t
where: D - distance to the object in meters;
t is the angular magnitude of the object in thousandths;
h - height (width) of the object in meters.
For example, a telegraph pole 6 meters high is closed
10 mm on the ruler.

The angular value of an improvised object can be
also determined using a millimeter ruler. For this
the width (thickness) of the object in millimeters must be multiplied
by two thousandths, since one millimeter of the ruler with its
at a distance of 50 cm from the eye corresponds to the thousandth formula
angular value in two thousandths.

Measuring angles in thousandths can
produced:
goniometric circle compass;
binocular and periscope reticle;
artillery circle (on the map);
the whole sight;
sniper side adjustment mechanism
sight;
observation and aiming devices;
officer and other line with
millimeter divisions;
handy items.

Binoculars - a device used to monitor the battlefield.
Consists of two spotting scopes interconnected by a common
axis.
Each spotting scope includes an eyepiece, an objective and two
prisms. In the right pipe, in addition, there is a goniometric grid, with
which is used to measure the angular value
subject.
In the field of view of the binoculars, there are two mutually perpendicular
goniometric scales for measuring horizontal and vertical
corners. Divisions are applied to them: large, equal to 10 thousandths
(0-10), and small, equal to five thousandths (0-05).
To measure the angular magnitude of any object (object), it is necessary to point at
him binoculars, count the divisions of the scale,
covering the observed object, and
convert the received reading to thousandths.

Sizes of the most common items.

Dimensions in meters
Items
height
width
length
5-7
-
-
-
-
50-60
7-8
-
-
18-20
-
-
passenger two-axle
4,3
3,2
13,0
passenger four-axle
4,3
3,2
20,0
commodity two-axle
3,5
2,7
6,5-7,0
commercial four-axle
4,0
2,7
13,0
Four-axle railway tank car
3,0
2,75
9,0
Railway platform four-axle
1,6
2,75
13,0
cargo
2,0-2,15
2,0-3,5
5,0-6,0
passenger car
1,5-1,8
1,5
4,0-4,5
armored personnel carrier
2,0
2,0
5,0-6,0
implement with tractor
-
-
10,0
heavy (no guns)
2,5-3,0
3,0-3,5
7,0-8,0
medium
2,5-3,0
3,0
6,0-7,0
lungs
2,0-2,5
2,5
5,0-5,5
easel machine gun
0,5
0,75
1,5
Sidecar motorcyclist
1,5
1,2
2,0
Medium height man
1,65
-
-
Communication line wooden pole
Distance between poles of the communication line
Peasant house with a roof
middle age forest
Railway cars:
Cars:
Tanks:

Homework

pp. 59 No. 4, 6, 8, 9, excellent No. 5;
p. 172 No. 7, 8, 9, 10, excellent
№24.
Prepare for a tactical flight
Outline.