Determination of the standing point on the map. Determination of the point of standing on the map How to determine the point of standing
The point of one's standing is determined on the map according to local objects, characteristic forms and details of the relief indicated on the map.
The easiest way to do this is when you are near such a landmark: the location of its symbol will indicate on the map the desired point of your standing. In other cases, the standing point is determined by one of the following methods.
According to the closest landmarks to the eye . This is the simplest and main way to approximately determine the point of your standing on the map when you are on a terrain with clearly defined landforms and rich landmarks. It is as follows. They orient the map and identify one or two nearest landmarks on it and on the ground. Having then determined by eye their location relative to them, they put in accordance with this the point of their standing on the map (Fig. 57 and 59).
Distance traveled . This method is used when driving along a road or along any line of the terrain indicated on the map (river bank, clearing in the forest, etc.), as well as when driving in a straight line in a certain direction (for example, to a remote landmark, and in conditions of poor visibility - in the direction along a given azimuth). It is especially useful in conditions of poor visibility and in areas that are closed or poor in landmarks. With this method, the point of one's standing is determined by plotting on the map according to the scale or estimating by eye the distance traveled from the starting point or from any other known point that is reliably identified on the ground and on the map. In this case, the distance traveled is measured by the speedometer, by the time of movement or by steps, depending on the method of movement.
Landmark serif . This method does not require measuring distances and is most applicable in open areas with good visibility. It has several varieties.
When driving along a road or along any contour, the detection of the point of one's location is performed as follows. Orient the map and identify on it a landmark visible on the ground from a defined point. Then they apply a ruler (or pencil) on the map to the image of this landmark and, without knocking down the orientation of the map, direct the ruler to the landmark, turning it around its symbol for this; the point of intersection of the line of sight along the ruler with the image of the road will be the required standing point on the map.
Determination of the standing point is simplified if the selected landmark is perpendicular to the direction of movement or in alignment with some other landmark, also indicated on the map and visible from the point being determined, as shown in Fig. 54. The desired standing point will then turn out on the map at the intersection of the road or contour line on which we are located, with a straight line drawn through the landmark perpendicular to the line of our movement, and in the second case - with a straight line passing through both landmarks that form the target . When drawing these lines, neither the orientation of the map nor the sighting of landmarks along the ruler is required.
When driving off roads and in directions not indicated on the map. In this case, a notch to determine the point of one's standing on the map is made using at least two landmarks. Such a notch is performed as follows. Having identified the selected landmarks on the map, the map is oriented according to the compass, and then, as in the previous case, they sight each of them in turn and draw along the direction line from the landmarks towards themselves (Fig. 55). The intersection point on the map of these directions will be the point of our standing. To determine the standing point on the map, two directions are sufficient; the third direction is used for control.
When using the serif method, landmarks should be chosen, if possible, so that the directions along which the standing point is determined intersect at an angle of at least 30 ° and not more than 150 °. Otherwise, the accuracy of the serif is significantly reduced.
Comparison of the map with the area.
To compare the map with the terrain means to find on the map an image of local objects and relief elements located around the point of our standing and, conversely, to identify the objects shown on the map on the terrain.
It is constantly necessary to compare the map with the terrain when orienting and working with the map in field conditions. This allows you to most quickly and fully study the terrain, identify the changes that have occurred on it, clarify the location of observed targets, landmarks and other important objects, and determine the distances to them.
To find on the map an image of an object observed on the ground, it is necessary:
- orient the map and determine the point of your standing on it;
- without knocking down the orientation of the map, stand facing the object being determined, estimate the distance to it by eye and mentally set aside this distance on a scale on the map from the point of your standing in the direction of the object;
- at a delayed distance, find the image of the object being determined.
To solve the inverse problem, i.e. to identify on the ground the object indicated on the map, you must also orient the map and find the point of your standing on it; then determine by eye on the map the distance to the desired object, the direction to it, and, using these data, find it on the ground.
The standing point can be determined on the map in various ways: by the nearest landmarks by eye, by measuring the distance traveled, by a notch. The method of determining the standing point is selected taking into account the available time, the conditions of the situation and the required accuracy.
Finding your location according to the closest landmarks to the eye. This is the most common way. On an oriented map, one or two local objects visible on the ground are identified, then they visually determine their location relative to these objects in directions and distances to them and mark their point of standing (Fig. 66).
If the point of standing on the ground is located next to any local object or its characteristic bend (turn) shown on the map, then the location of the symbol (turn point) of this object will coincide with the desired standing point.
Distance measurement. This method is most often used when moving along a linear landmark or along it (along the road, clearing, etc.), as well as when moving in azimuth. At the starting point, record the reading on the speedometer and start moving. When determining your location, you should put on the map the distance traveled from the starting point to the stopping point. If the movement is made on foot or on skis, the distance traveled is measured in steps or determined by the time of movement.
In the direction of the landmark and the distance to it the standing point can be determined if only one landmark is identified on the ground and on the map. In this case, on an oriented map, a ruler is applied to the conventional sign of the identified landmark, it is sighted at the landmark on the ground, a straight line is drawn along the edge of the ruler and the distance from the landmark is plotted on it. The point obtained on the line of sight will be the desired standing point.
On alignment. An alignment is a straight line passing through the standing point and two other characteristic points of the terrain (landmarks).
If the car is on the alignment line, its location on the map can be determined in one of the following ways:
Along the alignment and linear landmark (Fig. 67). If we are on a linear landmark (road) and in alignment with two local objects, it is enough to draw a straight line on the map through the conventional signs of local objects (landmarks), in alignment with which the standing point is located on the ground, before crossing the road. The point of intersection of the alignment line with the road will be the desired standing point;
Along the alignment and lateral landmark. In the fig. 68 example, the alignment is the direction of the street of the settlement. To determine the standing point, the map is oriented along the alignment line, and then, having attached the ruler to the side reference point (a separate tree), they sight it and draw a straight line until it intersects with the alignment line. At the intersection of the alignment line with the line of sight to the landmark, there will be a standing point;
By measured distance. A line is drawn on the map. Then the distance to the nearest landmark located on the alignment line is determined, and this distance is plotted on the drawn straight line (from the landmark to itself). The point obtained on the straight line will be the standing point.
serif the standing point is determined under the condition good review terrain and the presence on it of local objects and landforms that can serve as reliable landmarks.
According to the lateral landmark (Fig. 69), the notch is made, as a rule, when driving along the road or along some linear landmark. Being on the road, they orient the map, identify on it the image of an object (landmark) that is clearly visible on the ground, apply a sight line to the conventional landmark sign and sight it. Then, without changing the position of the ruler, a straight line is drawn on the map until it intersects with a conventional road sign. The intersection of the drawn line with the conventional road sign will be the desired standing point.
In this way, they most accurately determine their location on the map if the direction to the lateral landmark intersects with the direction of movement at a right angle. Such a case is called a notch along a perpendicular.
According to two or three landmarks (Fig. 70), the resection is most often performed when your location is not indicated on the map. The map is oriented by a compass and two or three landmarks depicted on the map are identified on the ground. Then, as in the previous case, they sight alternately at the selected landmarks and draw along the direction line from the landmarks to themselves. All these directions must intersect at one point, which will be the standing point. Such a notch is often called a reverse notch.
The notch along the measured (built) angles (Fig. 71) (Bolotov's method) is performed in the following sequence:
Using a tower protractor or in another way, such as a compass, measure the horizontal angles between three landmarks selected around the standing point and clearly depicted on the map;
Measured angles are built on transparent paper with a randomly applied point taken as a standing point; these angles can also be built by direct sighting with a ruler at selected landmarks on the ground;
The paper is laid on the map so that each direction drawn on it passes through the conventional sign of the landmark on which it was drawn when sighting or built according to the measured angles;
Combining all directions with their corresponding conventional signs landmarks, pin on the map the point indicated on the sheet of paper at which the directions are built. This point will be the standing point.
On the reverse directional angles (Fig. 72), the notch is most often performed in an environment where it is impossible to work with a map on the ground openly. In this case, reverse azimuths are measured with a compass from a standing point to two or three point landmarks visible on the ground and identified on the map. The values of the reverse azimuths are counted on the compass scale against the pointer located at the rear sight. The measured azimuths are converted into directional angles(see section 5.3). Then, having built these angles with the corresponding landmarks on the map, the directions are drawn until they intersect with each other. The point of intersection of the directions will be the standing point.
When determining the standing point by any serif method, the directions should be chosen so that they intersect at an angle of at least 30 and no more than 150 °. In all possible cases, the position of the received standing point is checked by sighting on an additional local object (landmark). If a triangle is formed at the intersection of three directions, the standing point is placed in its center. For large triangle sizes, when its side is more than 2 mm, the notch must be repeated, after checking the accuracy of the map orientation.
Section 5 Orientation on the ground
§ 1.5.1. Essence and methods of orientation
Orientation on the ground includes determining one's location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement and understanding the position of landmarks, lines, friendly troops, enemy troops, engineering structures and other objects on the ground.
Orientation methods. Depending on the nature of the task being performed, orientation can be carried out on the spot from separate points (for example, from observation posts during reconnaissance) or on the move (on the march, on the offensive, etc.). In both cases, the main method is orientation along topographic map using a compass.
Reliable route keeping in difficult conditions and with poor visibility is most successfully carried out using a topographic map using data provided by navigation equipment (coordinator and course plotter). A generally accessible way of maintaining the direction of movement at night, as well as on terrain with rare landmarks, is movement along azimuths prepared in advance on the map. In some cases, orientation (determining the direction of movement) can be carried out without a map (by compass, landmarks, heavenly bodies, featured local items).
When orienting on the ground during reconnaissance, first topographic and then tactical orientation is carried out.
Topographic orientation includes determining the sides of the horizon, the point of its standing, the position of the surrounding objects of the terrain. In topographic orientation, they first show the direction to the north for some object and their location relative to the nearest and well-marked landmark. Then they call the necessary landmarks and other terrain objects, indicate directions to them and approximate distances. Directions to landmarks indicate relative to their position (straight, right, left) or along the sides of the horizon. The order of indication of landmarks is from right to left, starting from the right flank. An example of a report on topographic orientation: " Direction to the north - mound. We are located on the northern outskirts of Timonovka; on the right, 5 km - Semenovka; straight, 4 km - grove "Dark"; further, 10 km - the settlement of Ivanovka; to the left, 2 km - height 125.6».
tactical orientation consists in determining and showing on the ground the location and nature of the actions of enemy troops and friendly subunits by a certain time.
§ 1.5.2. Orientation without a map
Orientation without a map consists in determining the sides of the horizon (directions to the north, east, south, west) and its location on the ground relative to landmarks and takes place in a limited area.
Landmarks are clearly visible local objects and relief details, relative to which they determine their location, direction of movement and indicate the position of targets and other objects.
Landmarks are chosen as evenly as possible along the front and in depth. The selected landmarks are numbered from right to left along the lines and away from you towards the enemy. In addition to the number, each landmark is usually given a code name corresponding to its external features, for example, “ Dry wood», « house with red roof" etc.
Sides of the horizon and how to determine them
It must be remembered that if you stand facing north, then on the right hand will be east, on the left - west, respectively, south - behind . To determine the sides of the horizon, the following methods can be recommended:
- by compass;
- by the Sun and analog clock;
- by the Sun and digital clock;
- with the help of improvised means;
- on local facilities;
- by the North Star;
- by the moon.
Let us consider in more detail these ways of determining the sides of the horizon, as well as the recommended sequence of their development in the course of training sessions.
Determining the sides of the horizon by compass . A magnetic compass is a device that allows you to determine the sides of the horizon, as well as measure angles in degrees on the ground. The principle of operation of a compass is that a magnetized needle on a hinge rotates along the lines of force of the Earth's magnetic field and is constantly held by them in one direction. The most common are various options Adrianov's compass and artillery compass.
Rice. 5.1 Adrianov's compass
1 - cover with stands for sighting; 2 - limb; 3 - reference pointer; 4 - magnetic needle; 5 - brake
Adrianov's compass(Fig.5.1) allows you to measure angles in degrees and divisions of the goniometer. To read the angles, a dial with two scales is used. Degrees are signed through 15 ° (division price 3 °) clockwise, dividing the protractor - through 5-00 (division price 0-50). The reading on the dial is read using a pointer mounted on the inner wall of the compass cover against the front sight. The northern end of the magnetic needle, the reference pointer and divisions on the limb, corresponding to 0°, 90°, 180° and 270°, are covered with a composition glowing in the dark. There is a mechanism that slows down the movement of the arrow.
Rice. 5.2 Artillery compass
1 - compass case; 2 – rotating limb body; 3 - limbus; 4 - compass cover with a mirror "a", a cutout for sighting "b" and a latch "c"; 5 - magnetic needle; 6 – protrusion of the brake lever arrows
Artillery compass(Fig. 5.2) thanks to some improvements, it is more convenient to use than Adrianov's compass. Its case is rectangular, which allows you to accurately set the compass along the lines of the map and draw directions. The compass cover with a mirror surface allows you to observe the position of the magnetic needle and at the same time aim at the object. The magnetic needle fixes the direction of the magnetic meridian more steadily; its braking is carried out by closing the cover. The price of division of the scale of the limb is 1-00, their signatures are given after 5-00 clockwise.
Determination of the sides of the horizon by the Sun and analog clocks . This rather convenient and accurate method of determining the sides of the horizon is used if the Sun is visible, or it is determined through the clouds.
An analog clock is held horizontally and rotated until the hour hand is aligned with the direction of the sun, the position of the minute hand is not taken into account. The angle between the hour hand and the number "1" of the clock face is divided in half. The line dividing this angle in half will indicate the direction to the south (Fig. 5.3). It is important to remember that before one in the afternoon, the angle that the hour hand has not passed is divided in half, and after one in the afternoon, the angle that it has already passed.
Determining the sides of the horizon by the Sun and digital clock . This method of determining the sides of the horizon is used when the light of the Sun is sufficient for objects to cast a shadow.
On a horizontal surface (on the ground) a circle with a diameter of 25-30 cm is drawn with a dot in the center. Then, from the outer side of the circle from the side of the Sun, a small load (for example, a bunch of keys) is suspended on a string or cord so that the shadow from the string passes through the center of the drawn circle. Further, through the point of intersection of the shadow from the rope with the sunny side of the circle and the center of the circle, a radius is drawn, indicating the hour hand of an imaginary clock. According to the digital clock, the actual time is specified, according to which the divisions of the imaginary dial are drawn in the circle.
Further, as on an analog clock, the angle between the hour of the day and the drawn hour hand is divided in half (before the hour of the day, the angle that the hour hand has not passed is divided in half, and after the hour of the day, the angle that it has already passed). The resulting direction is south (Fig. 5.4).
Rice. 5.4 Determining the sides of the horizon by the Sun and digital clock
Determining the sides of the horizon using improvised means . The situation is complicated when on a cloudy day it is impossible to determine exactly where the Sun is. However, in this case, there are ways to quite accurately determine the sides of the horizon.
Rice. 5.5 Determining the sides of the horizon with a float and a needle
A flat round float with a diameter of 15-20 mm and a thickness of 5-6 mm is made from the bark or a piece of wood. A shallow diametrical incision is made on the float, in which it is necessary to carefully place the needle, lower the float onto the existing water surface (any puddle; water poured into a plastic or wooden container; a small depression in the ground lined with a plastic bag and filled with water from a flask, etc. ). Under the influence of terrestrial magnetism, the needle will definitely turn and, swinging between east and west, will settle down with its tip to the north, and its eye to the south, that is, along the Earth's magnetic lines of force (Fig. 5.5).
If there is no needle, then a thin steel nail or steel wire can replace it. But in this case, it is important to remember that the needle turns with its tip to the north due to the peculiarities of the manufacturing technology - the so-called "broaching". For a piece of wire or a nail, the direction of the broach is unknown; accordingly, it is not clear which end of it points to the north, and which one to the south. Therefore, for alignment, it is necessary once near a noticeable landmark (anthill, growth rings, etc.) to do the same operations as with a needle, then mark the end of the wire or nail that will turn to the north. Interesting fact: even an automatic ramrod on a float of the appropriate size can play the role of a compass needle - the ramrod will always turn to the north with a thread (true only for AKs released before 1984).
Determination of the sides of the horizon by local objects . The sides of the horizon can be determined by local objects, but it must be remembered that the error in this case can be 15-20 °.
- One of the most reliable indicators of the sides of the horizon are forest anthills - they are usually located at the roots of a tree with a dense crown that protects them from rain and always on the south side of this tree. In addition, the south side of the anthill is always flatter than the north.
- The next, though not as reliable indicator as an anthill, is moss on stones and trees. Moss, avoiding direct sunlight, grows on the shady northern sides of rocks and trees. Using this method, one must be careful: since there is no direct sunlight in a dense forest, moss grows around the entire surface of the tree - at its roots and above. The same goes for stones. Accordingly, this method "works" well only on separate trees or stones. Or, in extreme cases, in the woodlands.
- The sides of the horizon can be determined by the annual rings of trees. To do this, you can find a free-standing stump or cut a small, free-standing tree with a diameter of 70-80 mm. Carefully cleaning the cut, we will see that the core, that is, the center of the concentric annual rings, is displaced relative to the geometric center of the stump, and it is necessarily displaced to the north. Drawing a straight line through the geometric center of the stump and the center of concentric annual rings, we get the direction to the north.
- The bark of most trees is rougher on the north side, thinner, more elastic (lighter in birch) - on the south.
- In pine, the secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the north side rises higher along the trunk.
- On the north side, trees, stones, wooden, tiled and slate roofs are covered with lichens and fungi earlier and more abundantly.
- On coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side.
- In spring, the grass cover is more developed on the northern outskirts of the glades, warmed by the sun's rays, in the hot period of summer - on the southern, darkened ones.
- Berries and fruits acquire the color of maturity earlier (blush, turn yellow) on the south side.
- In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side, which can be determined by touch.
- Snow melts faster on the southern sides of the snowdrifts, resulting in the formation of notches in the snow - spikes directed to the south.
- In the mountains, oak often grows on the southern slopes.
- Clearings in the forests, as a rule, are oriented in the north-south or west-east direction.
- The altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran churches face east, while the main entrances are located on the west side.
- The altars of Catholic churches (kostels) face west.
- The raised end of the lower crossbar of the churches faces north.
- Kumirni (pagan chapels with idols) face south.
- On Christian graves, the gravestone or cross stands at the feet, that is, on the east side, since the grave itself is oriented from east to west.
Determination of the sides of the horizon by the North Star . Recall the remarkable property of the Polar Star - it is practically motionless during the daily rotation of the starry sky and, accordingly, it is very convenient for orientation - the direction to it practically coincides with the direction to the north (the deviation from the north point does not exceed 3 °).
To find this star in the sky, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major, which consists of seven fairly noticeable stars arranged so that if you connect them with an imaginary line, a bucket will be drawn.
If you mentally continue the line of the front wall of the bucket, approximately 5 distances equal to the length of this wall, then it will rest against the Polar Star (Fig. 5.6).
Being in the mountains, or in the forest, the bucket can not be seen if it is currently under the North Star. In this case, another noticeable constellation will help - the Constellation of Cassiopeia. This constellation is formed by six fairly bright stars and represents the Russian letter "Z" when located to the right of the North Star, and the wrong letter "M" if located above the North Star.
Rice. 5.6 Finding the North Star in the sky
To find the Polar Star, it is necessary to mentally draw a median from the top of the large triangle of the constellation (i.e., a straight line connecting the apex of the triangle with the middle of the opposite side) to its base, which, when continued, rests against the Polar Star (Fig. 5.6).
Determination of the sides of the horizon by the moon . The sides of the horizon are determined on a cloudy night when it is not possible to find the North Star. To do this, you need to know the location of the moon in various phases (table 5.1)
The table shows that it is most convenient to determine the sides of the horizon during the full moon. In this phase, the Moon is always on the opposite side of the Sun.
Table 5.1
§ 1.5.3. Movement in azimuths
Movement along azimuths is a way of maintaining the intended path (route) from one point (landmark) to another along known azimuths and distances. Movement along azimuths is used at night, as well as in the forest, desert, tundra and in other conditions that make it difficult to navigate the map.
Determining the direction on the ground at a given azimuth by Adrianov's compass . By rotating the compass cover, the pointer is set to the reading corresponding to the value of the given azimuth. Then, having released the magnetic needle, turn the compass so that the zero stroke of the dial is aligned with the northern end of the arrow. At the same time, they become facing in the right direction and, raising the compass to about shoulder level, they sight along the slot-front sight line and in this direction they notice some landmark on the ground. This direction will correspond to the given azimuth.
Determining the direction on the ground according to a given azimuth with an AK artillery compass . The compass cover is set at an angle of 45° and by rotating the dial, the given reading is combined with the pointer at the slot of the cover. The compass is raised to eye level and, observing in the mirror of the cover, they turn until the zero stroke of the limb is aligned with the northern end of the arrow. In this position of the compass, they sight through the slot and notice some landmark. The direction to the landmark will correspond to the specified azimuth.
Measuring the magnetic azimuth with the Adrianov compass . Having released the magnetic needle, turn the compass to bring the zero stroke under the northern end of the arrow. Without changing the position of the compass, by rotating the ring, the sighting device is directed with the fly in the direction of the object to which the azimuth is to be measured. Aiming the front sight on an object is achieved by repeatedly shifting the gaze from the sighting device to the object and back; for this purpose, the compass should not be raised to eye level, since in this case the arrow may move away from the zero stroke of the limb and the accuracy of the azimuth measurement will sharply decrease. By aligning the sight line of the slit-front sight with the direction to the object, the countdown is taken at the pointer of the front sight. This will be the azimuth of the direction to the subject. The average error in measuring the azimuth with the Adrianov compass is 2-3°.
Measuring the magnetic azimuth with an AK artillery compass . Putting the compass cover at an angle of approximately 45?, sight on the subject. Then, without changing the position of the compass, by rotating the limb, observing in the mirror, the zero stroke of the limb is brought to the northern end of the magnetic needle and the reading is taken from the pointer. The average error in measuring the azimuth with an AK artillery compass is approximately 0-25.
Preparing data for moving along azimuths . On the map, a route is planned with clear landmarks on turns and the directional angle and length of each straight section route. The directional angles are converted into magnetic azimuths, and the distances are converted into a couple of steps if the movement is made on foot, or into the speedometer readings when marching in cars. Data for movement in azimuths is drawn up on the map, and if there is no map on the way, then make up a route scheme (Figure 5.7) or a table (Table 5.2).
Rice. 5.7 Route scheme for moving along azimuths
| Landmark number and name | Magnetic azimuth, deg | Distance | |
| in meters | in a couple of steps | ||
| 1 - separate yard | - | - | - |
| 2 - the place where the road enters the forest | 15 | 1557 | 1038 |
| 3 - crossing glades | 330 | 645 | 430 |
| 4 - pit at the clearing | 356 | 1020 | 680 |
| 5 - forester's house | 94 | 705 | 470 |
Table 5.2
The order of movement in azimuths . At the original (first) landmark, the direction of movement to the second landmark is determined by azimuth using a compass. In this direction, they notice some remote landmark (auxiliary) and start moving. Having reached the intended landmark, the direction of movement is again indicated by the compass to the next intermediate landmark, and so they continue to move until they reach the second landmark.
In the same order, but already along a different azimuth, they continue to move from the second landmark to the third, and so on. On the way, taking into account the distances traveled, they look for landmarks at the turns of the route and thereby control the correctness of the movement.
To facilitate direction keeping, one should use celestial bodies and various signs: the straightness of the walking column or your own track when skiing, the direction of the ripples on the sand and the sastruga on the snow (sastruga is a long and narrow snow bank swept by the wind), wind direction, etc. According to the celestial bodies, you can confidently maintain the direction of movement, specifying it with a compass approximately every 15 minutes.
The accuracy of reaching the landmark depends on the accuracy of determining the direction of movement and measuring the distance. Deviation from the route due to the error in determining the direction of the compass usually does not exceed 5% of the distance traveled. If the direction of movement is specified by the compass often enough, then the deviation from the route will be about 3% of the distance traveled.
obstacle avoidance . If there are obstacles on the route, then the bypass routes are marked on the map and the necessary data are prepared for this - azimuths and distances. Obstacles not taken into account when preparing data for movement are bypassed in one of the following ways.
First way applied when the obstacle is visible to the end. In the direction of movement, a landmark is marked on the opposite side of the obstacle. Then they bypass the obstacle, find the noticed landmark and from it continue to move in the same direction; the width of the obstacle is estimated by eye and added to the distance traveled to the obstacle.
Second way. An obstacle, the opposite side of which is not visible, is bypassed in directions forming a rectangle or parallelogram, the azimuths and lengths of the sides of which are determined on the ground. An example of such a bypass is shown in Figure 5.8. from point BUT go along the obstacle in the chosen direction (in the example - along the azimuth of 280 °). Having passed to the end of the obstacle (to the point AT) and having measured the resulting distance (200 pairs of steps), they continue to move along a given azimuth (in the example, along an azimuth of 45 °) to the point FROM. from point FROM enter the main route along the reverse azimuth of the direction AB(in the example - in azimuth 100 °, since the reverse azimuth is equal to the direct ± 180 °), measuring 200 pairs of steps in this direction (distance CD , equal AB). Here the line length sun added to the distance traveled from point No. 2 to point BUT, and continue to move to point number 3.
§ 1.5.4. Orientation on the map
Orientation in place includes orientation of the map, identification of landmarks, determination of the standing point, comparison of the map with the terrain.
Orientation of the map - giving it by turning in a horizontal plane such a position in which north side the frame will face north, and the lines and directions on the map will be parallel to the corresponding lines and directions on the ground. The map is oriented by a compass, terrain line or direction to a landmark.
Compass map orientation . The reception is used mainly in areas that are difficult to navigate (in the forest, desert, etc.). Under these conditions, the compass determines the direction to the north, and then the map is turned with the upper side of the frame in this direction. The compass map can be more accurately oriented based on magnetic declination. In this case, a compass with an unlocked magnetic needle is installed on one of the vertical lines of the coordinate grid of the map so that the line passing through the strokes of 0 and 180 ° of the scale (or the corresponding edge of the AK compass) coincides with the line of the map. The card is then rotated so that the north end of the magnetic needle deviates from the 0° stroke by the direction correction amount indicated in the lower left corner. this sheet cards. An example of map orientation using a compass is shown in Figure 5.9.
Rice. 5.9 Compass map orientation
Orientation of the map along the line of the terrain . The map is rotated so that the line of the symbol of a local object, such as a road, coincides with the direction of the local object itself, and the images of all objects located to the right and left of it are on the same sides as on the ground (Fig. 5.10).
Rice. 5.10 Orientation of the map along the line of the terrain
Orientation of the map direction to landmark . The technique is used when the standing point is known and the landmark indicated on the map is visible from it. The map is rotated so that the direction "standing point - landmark" coincides with the corresponding direction on the ground. For a more accurate orientation of the map, a ruler is applied to these points and sighted at the landmark along it.
Landmark recognition - the most important stage of orientation on the map, since the standing point can only be determined by landmarks, common to the map and terrain.
The identification of landmarks begins with the largest, prominent objects in the area, and those that are relatively rare in the given area. When searching for objects observed on the ground on the map, their mutual position and position relative to the sides of the horizon are taken into account. The correctness of the identification of landmarks is checked by the surrounding elements of the terrain.
In cases where it is not possible to identify landmarks common to the map and the terrain, you should move so that the visibility of other landmarks opens up and try to identify these landmarks on the map.
The determination of the standing point on the map is carried out visually according to the nearest landmarks, by measuring distances, by measured distance and direction, and by resection. When choosing a method, the nature of the terrain, visibility conditions, the availability of time, as well as the accuracy with which it is desirable to determine the standing point are taken into account.
Determination of the standing point on the map visually according to the nearest landmarks, it is recommended to determine the standing point on a moderately rugged terrain, when the point is located near the terrain object shown on the map. To do this, a map is oriented, two or three nearest landmarks are identified on it and the distances to them are determined by eye. At certain distances to landmarks, taking into account directions, a standing point is marked on the map. The accuracy of determining the standing point on the map in this way depends mainly on the distances to landmarks: how are these the greater the distance, the less reliably the standing point is determined. When located from landmarks at a distance of up to 500 m, the standing point, with sufficient experience, is determined with an average error of the order of 20% of the average distance to landmarks.
Determination of the standing point on the map by measuring the distance . The method is mainly used when driving on a road or along a linear contour, mainly in closed areas or under poor visibility conditions. The essence of the method: measure the distance (for example, in steps) from a landmark located by the road or some other linear landmark to the determined standing point; then this distance is plotted on the map along the road (linear landmark) in the appropriate direction. The accuracy of determining the standing point in this way depends mainly on the magnitude of the error in measuring the distance on the ground.
Determining a standing point on the map by direction and distance . The method is used when only one landmark is identified. In this case, the map is oriented according to the compass, taking into account the magnetic declination. Then a ruler is applied to the landmark on the map, with a sighting it is directed to the same landmark on the ground and a line is drawn (Fig. 5.11- a). You can also sight with a pencil installed vertically (Fig. 5.11- b).
Rice. 5.11 Sighting methods:
a - along the line;
b - on a pencil
To do this, the oriented map must be in a horizontal position approximately at the level of the chin. The pencil is placed vertically on the image of the landmark on the map, sighted through it at the landmark and, without changing the position of the eye and the map, slowly move the pencil towards you. On the line of sight drawn from the image of the landmark, a distance is laid off, which is preliminarily measured in steps, with binoculars, a rangefinder, or estimated by eye. Under the same conditions, the standing point can be determined by another method (Fig. 5.12).
Rice. 5.12 Determining a standing point by direction and distance
At the standing point, the magnetic azimuth to the landmark is measured with a compass. Then this azimuth is reversed (add or subtract 180 °), and the last - into the directional angle, along which a direction is drawn from the landmark on the map and the measured distance is laid in this direction. The resulting point will be the desired location point.
Example . The given magnetic azimuth to the landmark (geodesic point) is 30°, the distance is 1500 m, the correction in the magnetic azimuth at the transition to the directional angle is +12°. Determine the point of standing. Solution. Back azimuth is 210° (30° + 180°), directional angle is 222° (210° + 12°); the necessary constructions are shown in Figure 5.12.
The average error in determining the standing point by distance and direction is about 5% of the distance from the standing point to the landmark when measuring the distance in steps, and the azimuth - with a compass.
Determination of the standing point on the map by resection in one direction . This method is used when you are on a road (or other linear object), from which only one landmark is visible, located away from it. The map may be more accurately oriented and sighted at the landmark. The point of intersection of the line of sight and the road will be the required stationing point. The standing point under the same conditions can also be determined by the following method: they measure the magnetic azimuth to the landmark, translate it into the opposite, and the latter are converted into a directional angle. According to the value of the directional angle, a direction is drawn from the landmark to the intersection with the road.
The average error in determining the standing point by this method with careful execution of techniques is about 10% of the range at a serif angle from 30 to 60° and from 120 to 150° and about 5% at a serif angle from 60° to 120°.
Determination of the standing point on the map by resection in three (two) directions . This method is used mainly in open areas, poor in landmarks, when three (at least two) landmarks are identified. If possible, landmarks located closer to the station should be used so that the directions from the landmarks at the station intersect at angles in the range of 30-150°.
Rice. 5.13 Determination of the standing point by resection
The map is carefully oriented according to the compass, a ruler is applied to the symbol of one of the landmarks on the map and directed to the same landmark on the ground, then a line is drawn towards itself (Fig. 5.13). Without knocking down the orientation of the map, directions to the second and third landmarks are drawn in the same way. The intersection of three directions usually forms a triangle, the center of which will be the standing point. In two directions, the standing point is determined less accurately, and most importantly, without control.
Under the same conditions, when working with the map is difficult (it is raining, etc.), the standing point can be determined by magnetic azimuths measured from the standing point to landmarks. Magnetic azimuths are converted into reverse, and the latter into directional angles, and directions are drawn on the map from the corresponding landmarks.
The average error in determining the standing point by resection using three landmarks is about 15% of the average distance to the landmarks.
Comparison of the map with the area - the final stage of topographic orientation. At this stage, the area is studied, its changes that have occurred since creating a map, the position on the ground of the objects shown on the map is specified.
To find an object visible on the ground on the map, mentally or along the ruler draw a line from the standing point to the terrain object and in the direction of this line find the symbol of the object being searched for or make sure that the object is not shown on the map. For a more accurate determination of the direction to the object, the magnetic azimuth to it is measured using a compass, the directional angle of this direction is calculated, and the direction is drawn on the map using its value.
To solve the inverse problem, i.e. to identify on the ground the object indicated on the map, mentally or with the help of a ruler they sight along the line connecting the standing point and the symbol of the object, and in this direction, taking into account the distance to the desired object, they look for it on the ground.
Map orientation on the move . Depending on the nature of the terrain, when orienting in motion, as a rule, they use a map at a scale of 1:100,000 or 1:200,000. The main task of orientation in motion is to maintain a given or planned route on the map. Orientation in motion is carried out continuously in order to constantly know your location on the map, which is determined visually by comparing the map with the terrain. To do this, a map is preliminarily prepared, and a certain order is followed along the way.
§ 1.5.5. Creating a raster map
To create a raster map, we will use the SASPlanet program.
Initially, you need to find the area of interest by scrolling the map. Do not pay attention to the selected rectangle - this is a trace of the previous search (it will disappear when a new search starts).
Having chosen the area of interest of the desired scale, you must click on the "select rectangle".
Rice. 5.14 Search for a piece of terrain
Move the mouse pointer to the map field (upper left corner) and click once with the left button (this is how one of the corners of the rectangle is set); move the mouse pointer diagonally down the screen without pressing a key; having outlined the desired rectangle, click the left mouse button; The Selection Operations dialog box appears.
Rice. 5.20 Specifying a card name
Press the "Start" button, wait until the end of saving a piece of the map, exit the SASPlanet program.
Rice. 5.21 Starting the save process
Rice. 5.22 Preservation Process
Orientation in the area includes determining your location
relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks),
maintaining a given or selected direction of movement and understanding the position
on the terrain of landmarks, boundaries, and other objects.
On the map, you can determine your location, choose the path of movement, taking into account
compliance with camouflage and overcoming possible obstacles, as well as in advance
measure azimuths for driving off-road and in conditions of limited visibility.
To navigate the map on the ground, you must first orient
map and determine the point of your standing.
The following methods are used to orientate the map:
Linear orientation.
In this case, it is necessary to go out onto the road (clearing,
river bank or other line), find it on the map and then rotate the map until
until the direction of the road (lines) on the map matches the direction of the road
(lines) on the ground, then check that the items located on the right and
to the left of the road (lines), on the ground were on the same sides as on the map.
By compass.
the map is oriented when its location is not determined on it
or landmarks are not visible from the standing point.
With an approximate orientation of the map, first the direction is determined by the compass
north, then rotate the card so that the top side of the frame is facing
towards the north.
When accurately orienting the map according to the compass, first the compass reading pointer
set against a division of the scale equal to the correction of the direction, if the compass
set on the vertical line of the kilometer grid, or the magnitude of the magnetic
declination if the compass is mounted on the west or east side of the frame
cards (Fig. 1). If the direction correction (magnetic declination) is positive
(east), the reference pointer is set to the right of the zero division of the scale, and
if negative (western) - to the left.
Compass map orientation.
Then the compass is installed on the map so that the zero diameter of its limb (or
compass ruler AK) coincided with one of the vertical lines of the coordinate grid or with
one of the sides of the map frame (west or east), and the zero point was
is directed to the north side of the map frame. Without changing the position of the compass, the map
turn in a horizontal position until the north end of the magnetic
arrows will not be set against the reading that was previously set to
scale.
If the direction correction (or magnetic declination value) is less than 3°, i.e. equal to
compass scale division, it is not taken into account when orienting the map.
Should be remembered that the compass should not be used near iron objects,
military equipment and power lines, as they cause a deviation of the magnetic
arrows.
In the direction of the landmark.
the map is oriented in the same way as in a linear
landmark. The only difference is that instead of a linear landmark, they use
direction from the standing point to some remote local subject(separate
tree, bridge, repeater, i.e. landmark), reliably identified on
terrain and on the map.
With an approximate orientation of the map in this way, it is rotated in
horizontal position so that the direction mentally drawn on the map from
points of standing on the symbol of a local object approximately coincided with this
direction in the area.
Orientation of the map in the direction of the landmark. 
Precise orientation of the map towards a distant local object
(landmark) is performed using a line of sight or a pencil. ruler
apply on the map with a side face to the standing point (a separate stone) and
the conventional sign of the object in the direction to which the map is oriented
(railroad bridge). Then turn the card horizontally
so that the object on the ground is in the line of sight. In this position
the map will be oriented accurately.
It is easier to determine the point of your standing on the map when you are on the ground nearby
with a landmark (local item) depicted on the map.
In this case, the location of the symbol will coincide with the standing point.
By the North Star.
the map will be oriented if the top (north) side
the frame will be turned towards the North Star, i.e. to the north.
If there are no such landmarks at the point of standing on the ground, then it can be
define in one of the following ways:
Determining your location by the nearest landmarks by eye. it
the most common way. On an oriented map, one or two are identified
local objects visible on the ground, then visually determine their own
location relative to these objects in directions and distances to them
and mark the point of their standing (see figure).
Finding your location according to the closest landmarks to the eye. This is the most common way. On an oriented map, one or two local objects visible on the ground are identified, then they visually determine their location relative to these objects in directions and distances to them and mark their point of standing (Fig. 1).
Fig.1 Determining the standing point by the nearest landmarks.
If the point of standing on the ground is located next to any local object or its characteristic bend (turn) shown on the map, then the location of the symbol (turn point) of this object will coincide with the desired standing point.
In the direction of the landmark and the distance to it the standing point can be determined if only one landmark is identified on the ground and on the map. In this case, on an oriented map, a ruler is applied to the conventional sign of the identified landmark, it is sighted at the landmark on the ground, a straight line is drawn along the edge of the ruler and the distance from the landmark is plotted on it. The point obtained on the line of sight will be the desired standing point.
Distance measurement. This method is most often used when moving along a linear landmark or along it (along the road, clearing, etc.), as well as when moving in azimuth. At the starting point, record the reading on the speedometer and start moving. When determining your location, you should put on the map the distance traveled from the starting point to the stopping point. If the movement is made on foot or on skis, the distance traveled is measured in steps or determined by the time of movement.
On alignment. An alignment is a straight line passing through the standing point and two other characteristic points of the terrain (landmarks).
If the car is on the alignment line, its location on the map can be determined in one of the following ways:
Fig.1 Determining the standing point along the alignment and linear landmark.
- along the alignment and linear landmark(Fig. 1). If we are on a linear landmark (road) and in alignment with two local objects, it is enough to draw a straight line on the map through the conventional signs of local objects (landmarks), in alignment with which the standing point is located on the ground, before crossing the road. The point of intersection of the alignment line with the road will be the desired standing point;
- along the alignment and lateral landmark. In the example shown in Fig. 2, the alignment is the direction of the street locality. To determine the standing point, the map is oriented along the alignment line, and then, having attached the ruler to the side reference point (a separate tree), they sight it and draw a straight line until it intersects with the alignment line. At the intersection of the alignment line with the line of sight to the landmark, there will be a standing point;
Fig.2 Determining the standing point along the alignment and side reference.
- according to the measured distance. A line is drawn on the map. Then the distance to the nearest landmark located on the alignment line is determined, and this distance is plotted on the drawn straight line (from the landmark to itself). The point obtained on the straight line will be the standing point.
serif the standing point is determined under the condition of a good overview of the area and the presence of local objects and landforms on it, which can serve as reliable reference points.
By lateral reference(Fig. 1) the notch is made, as a rule, when driving along the road or along some linear landmark. Being on the road, they orient the map, identify on it the image of an object (landmark) that is clearly visible on the ground, apply a sight line to the conventional landmark sign and sight it. Then, without changing the position of the ruler, a straight line is drawn on the map until it intersects with a conventional road sign. The intersection of the drawn line with the conventional road sign will be the desired standing point.
Fig.1 Determining the standing point by a notch along a lateral landmark.
In this way, they most accurately determine their location on the map if the direction to the lateral landmark intersects with the direction of movement at a right angle. Such a case is called a notch along a perpendicular.
Two or three directions(Fig. 2) resection is most often performed when your location is not indicated on the map. The map is oriented by a compass and two or three landmarks depicted on the map are identified on the ground. Then, as in the previous case, they sight alternately at the selected landmarks and draw along the direction line from the landmarks to themselves. All these directions must intersect at one point, which will be the standing point. Such a notch is often called a reverse notch.
Fig.2 Determination of the standing point by a serif on three landmarks (reverse resection).
Resection by measured (constructed) angles(fig.3) (Bolotov's method) is performed in the following sequence:
Fig.3 Determination of the standing point by the Bolotov method.
Using a tower protractor or in another way, such as a compass, measure the horizontal angles between three landmarks selected around the standing point and clearly depicted on the map;
Measured angles are built on transparent paper with a randomly applied point taken as a standing point; these angles can also be built by direct sighting with a ruler at selected landmarks on the ground;
The paper is laid on the map so that each direction drawn on it passes through the conventional sign of the landmark on which it was drawn when sighting or built according to the measured angles;
Having combined all the directions with the conventional signs of landmarks corresponding to them, they pin onto the map the point indicated on the sheet of paper at which the directions are built. This point will be the standing point.
By reverse directional angles(Fig. 4) resection is most often performed in an environment where it is impossible to work with a map on the ground openly. In this case, reverse azimuths are measured with a compass from a standing point to two or three point landmarks visible on the ground and identified on the map. The values of the reverse azimuths are counted on the compass scale against the pointer located at the rear sight. The measured azimuths are converted into directional angles. Then, having built these angles with the corresponding landmarks on the map, the directions are drawn until they intersect with each other. The point of intersection of the directions will be the standing point.
Fig.4 Determination of the standing point by a serif on the reverse directional angles.
When determining the standing point by any serif method, the directions should be chosen so that they intersect at an angle of at least 30 and no more than 150 °. In all possible cases, the position of the received standing point is checked by sighting on an additional local object (landmark). If a triangle is formed at the intersection of three directions, the standing point is placed in its center. For large triangle sizes, when its side is more than 2 mm, the notch must be repeated, after checking the accuracy of the map orientation.
